Validating a Framework for Quality of Service in Open Distance Electronic Learning

Prince Yaw Owusu Amoako; Ernest Mnkandla; Michael Agyemang Adarkwah

doi:10.55982/openpraxis.18.1.1003

Validating a Framework for Quality of Service in Open Distance Electronic Learning

Open Praxis

Volume 18 (2026): Issue 1

By: Prince Yaw Owusu Amoako , Ernest Mnkandla and Michael Agyemang Adarkwah

Open Access

|Feb 2026

Abstract

Open Distance Electronic Learning (ODeL) has gained immense popularity due to its flexibility, convenience, and accessibility. However, ensuring quality of service (QoS) in ODeL in developing countries such as Ghana remains a significant challenge. This paper proposes a QoS framework (QoSODeL) that uses security, network bandwidth management, and conflict management as key elements to support smart education in Africa. Structural equation modeling, based on data from 551 participants (476 students, 53 lecturers, and 18 administrators), was used to validate the model. The QoS constructs showed high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha values for security, bandwidth management, and conflict management exceeding 0.9, and the model demonstrated good fit with an RMSEA below 0.05. The findings indicate that achieving QoS in ODeL in Africa requires careful consideration of these key elements.

References

Abobakr, R., & Bayoumy, H. (2022). Evaluating educational service quality among dentistry and nursing students with the SERVQUAL model: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 17. 10.1016/j.jtumed.2022.01.009
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Aboderin, O. S. (2015). Challenges and Prospects of E-learning at National Open University of Nigeria, Journal of Education and Learning, 9(3), 27, 207–216. 10.11591/edulearn.v9i3.1728
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Abuhassna, H., Busalim, A., Yahaya, N., Aman Zahiri Megat Zakaria, M., & Abdul Latif Latif, A. (2023). Study from Home! The Antecedents and Consequences of Collaborative Learning on Malaysian University Students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 22, 71–95. 10.28945/5074
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Accjc (2022). Eligibility Requirements for Accreditation. Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges, 1–9. https://accjc.org/wp-content/uploads/Eligibility-Requirements-for-Accreditation.pdf (Accessed: 21 June 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Adair, D., & Shattuck, K. (2015). Quality MattersTM: An Educational Input in an Ongoing Design-Based Research Project. American Journal of Distance Education, 29(3), 159–165. 10.1080/08923647.2015.1057094
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Adnan, M., & Anwar, K. (2020). Online learning amid the covid 19 pandemic students perspectives. Journal of Pedagogical Sociology and Psychology, 2(1), 45–51. 10.33902/JPSP.2020261309
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Amoako, P. Y. O. (2022). Conceptual Framework on Proactive Conflict Management in Smart Education. In 11th Sustainable Education and Development Research Conference – Sustainable Industrialization and Innovation: Proceedings of the Applied Research Conference in Africa (ARCA). Springer Nature. 10.1007/978-3-031-25998-2_38
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Amoako, P. Y. O., & Osunmakinde, I. O. (2020). Emerging bimodal biometrics authentication for non-venue-based assessments in open distance e-learning (OdeL) environments. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 12(2). 10.1504/IJTEL.2020.106287
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Amoako, P. Y. O., & Osunmakinde, I. O. (2022). Intelligent Bandwidth Planner Enhancing Learning Technologies in Constrained Distance Learning Environments – a Pandemic Response. In 2022 20th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training (ITHET) (pp. 1–16). Antalya, IEEE. 10.1109/ITHET56107.2022.10031982
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Amrane-Cooper, L., Hatzipanagos, S., & Tait, A. (2022). Developing Student Behaviours that Support Academic Integrity in Distance Learning. Open Praxis, 13(4), 378–384. 10.55982/openpraxis.13.4.461
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Artyukhov, A., Churikanova, O., & Yehorova, Y. (2025). Exploring the Link Between Education, Governance Quality, and Academic Integrity: A Cross-Country Clustering Analysis. Business Ethics and Leadership, 9(1), 143–153. 10.61093/bel.9(1).143-153.2025
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (2012). Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 8–34. 10.1007/s11747-011-0278-x
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Balasubramaniam, S., et al. (2009). Challenges for Assuring Quality of Service in a Service-Oriented Environment. In 2009 ICSE Workshop on Principles of Engineering Service Oriented Systems (PESOS 2009) (pp. 103–106). IEEE. 10.1109/PESOS.2009.5068829
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Baradaran, V., & Ghorbani, E. (2020). Development of Fuzzy Exploratory Factor Analysis for Designing an E-Learning Service Quality Assessment Model. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems, 22(6), 1772–1785. 10.1007/s40815-020-00901-1
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is it done? Qualitative Research, 6(1), 97–113. 10.1177/1468794106058877
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Butcher, N., & Wilson-Strydom, M. (2020). A Guide to Quality in Online Learning. Academic Partnerships, 1–28. https://sirjohn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/5bafb-guide-final.pdf (Accessed: 21 June 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Castleberry, A., & Nolen, A. (2018). Thematic analysis of qualitative research data: Is it as easy as it sounds? Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning, 10. 10.1016/j.cptl.2018.03.019
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Costinela-Luminita, D. (2011). Information security in E-learning Platforms. In Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 2689–2693). 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.171
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
C-RAC (2020). Accreditation During COVID-19: A Continuing Commitment To Quality Assurance. https://www.c-rac.org/post/c-rac-releases-new-report-on-accreditation-during-covid-19 (Accessed: 21 June 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Dafoulas, G., Ali, A., Samuels-Clarke, J., Tsiakara, A., & Cardoso Maia, C. (2019). Offering smarter learning support through the use of biometrics. In 26th International Conference on Telecommunications (ICT) (pp. 270–274). IEEE. 10.1109/ICT.2019.8798863
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Daniels Rahimi, I., & Cohen Zilka, G. (2023). Self-Efficacy in Learning English as a Foreign Language via Online Courses in Higher Education. In Proceedings of the 2023 InSITE Conference. 10.28945/5154
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Davies, G., Cover, C. F., Lawrence-Fowler, W., & Guzdial, M. (2001). Quality in distance education. 31st Annual Frontiers in Education Conference. Impact on Engineering and Science Education. Conference Proceedings (Cat. No.01CH37193).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
DEAC (2022). Accreditation Handbook Policies, Procedures, Standards and Guides of the Distance Education Accrediting Commission. Available at: www.deac.org (Accessed: 21 June 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Delva, S., Nkimbeng, M., Chow, S., Renda, S., Han, H., & D’Aoust, R. (2019). Views of regulatory authorities on standards to assure quality in online nursing education. Nursing Outlook, 67(6), 747–759. 10.1016/j.outlook.2019.06.011
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Demir, A., Maroof, L., Sabbah Khan, N., & Ali, B. (2020). The role of E-service quality in shaping online meeting platforms: a case study from higher education sector. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 13(5), 1436–1463. 10.1108/JARHE-08-2020-0253
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Diamantopoulos, A., & Siguaw, J. A. (2000). Introducing LISREL: A Guide for the Uninitiated. Sage Publications, London. 10.4135/9781849209359
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Du, J., Li, F., & Wang, X. (2018). Research and Construction Method of Service Quality Evaluation Model based on Customer perception in Online Education Field. In EEE ICCSE 2018 : The 13 International Conference on Computer Science & Education (ICCSE 2018) (pp. 462–465). 10.29007/lfj2
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Fan, X., Thompson, B., & Wang, L. (1999). Effects of sample size, estimation methods, and model specification on structural equation modeling fit indexes. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 56–83. 10.1080/10705519909540119
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Farid, S., Ahmad, R., Alam, M., Akbar, A., & Chang, V. (2018). A sustainable quality assessment model for the information delivery in E-learning systems. Information Discovery and Delivery, 46(1), 1–25. 10.1108/IDD-11-2016-0047
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Faturoti, B. (2022). Online learning during COVID19 and beyond: a human right based approach to internet access in Africa. International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, 36(1), 68–90. 10.1080/13600869.2022.2030027
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Field, A. (2017). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics. 5th edn. Sage Publication Ltd.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Foto, N., Johnson, R., Rice, A., Stewart-Rozema, J., Tomlin, Q., Zvereva, L., & Venable, M. (2022). 2022 Online Education Trends Report An Annual Survey of Students and School Administrators.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Fynn, A., & Mashile, E. O. (2022). Continuous Online Assessment at a South African Open Distance and e-Learning Institution. Frontiers in Education, 7. 10.3389/feduc.2022.791271
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gallego Sánchez, M., De-Pablos-Heredero, C., Medina-Merodio, J., Robina-Ramírez, R., & Fernandez-Sanz, L. (2021). Relationships among relational coordination dimensions: Impact on the quality of education online with a structural equations model. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 166. 10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120608
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gilavand, A., & Maraghi, E. (2019). Assessing the Quality of Educational Services of Iranian Universities of Medical Sciences Based on the SERVQUAL Evaluation Model: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences, 44, 273–284. 10.30476/IJMS.2019.44946
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Glorin, S. (2021). The Changing Face of Education Risk, Security and Process Around Distance Learning. ISACA Journal, 4, 1–4.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Graf, F. (2002). Providing security for eLearning. Computers & Graphics, 26(2), 355–365. 10.1016/S0097-8493(02)00062-6
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a Conceptual Framework for Mixed-Method Evaluation Designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11(3), 255–274. 10.3102/01623737011003255
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
GTEC (2016). National Accreditation Board Guidelines on Assuring Quality Of Online Learning In Tertiary Education Institutions. In Ghana. Available at: http://nab.gov.gh/admin1/qa_guidelines/5f34c024b27057.48736984.pdf (Accessed: 1 September 2022).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Harvey, L., & Green, D. (2006). Defining Quality. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 18(1), 9–34. 10.1080/0260293930180102
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hénard, F., & Roseveare, D. (2012). Fostering Quality Teaching in Higher Education: Policies and Practices, Guide for Higher Education Institutions. Available at: www.oecd.org/edu/imhe (Accessed: 10 September 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hershey, P., Rao, S., Silio, C., & Narayan, A. (2015). System of systems for quality-of-service observation and response in cloud computing environments. IEEE Systems Journal, 9(1), 212–222. 10.1109/JSYST.2013.2295961
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hollowell, G. P., Brooks, R. M., & Anderson, Y. B. (2017). Course Design, Quality Matters Training, and Student Outcomes. American Journal of Distance Education, 31(3), 207–216. 10.1080/08923647.2017.1301144
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. 10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hurley, J. C. (2022). How to apply structural equation modelling to infectious diseases concepts. Clinical Microbiology and Infection [Preprint]. 10.1016/j.cmi.2022.05.028
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hussain, M. I., & N, A. (2016). A Performance Analysis of E-Learning over WiFi-based Long Distance Networks. Journal of Wireless Networking and Communications, 6(4), 85–93. 10.5923/j.jwnc.20160604.01
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Huu Phuoc Dai, N., Kerti, A., & Rajnai, Z. (2016). E-Learning Security Risks and its Countermeasures. Journal of Emerging research and solutions in ICT, 1(1), 17–25. 10.20544/ERSICT.01.16.P02
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112–133. 10.1177/1558689806298224
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (1996). LISREL8: User’s reference guide. Mooresville: Scientific Software.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kalayci, S. (2010). SPSS Applied Multivariate Statistical Techniques. 5th ed. Asil Publication.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kelebogile Mudau, P., Biccard, P., van Wyk, M. M., Kotze, J. C., & Nkuna, R, V. (2022). Student Access to and Competence in Migrating to a Fully Online Open Distance Learning Space. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 21, 197–215. 10.28945/4976
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kettering University. (2020). 2020 Kettering University HLC Focused Visit: Faculty Workload Report. HLC 2019–2020, 4. https://digitalcommons.kettering.edu/hlc2019-2020/4
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kim, J. H., & Kim, M. (2020). Conceptualization and assessment of E-service quality for luxury brands. Service Industries Journal, 40(5), 436–470. 10.1080/02642069.2018.1517755
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kim, S., Lee, J., Yoon, S., & Kim, H. (2023). How can we achieve better e-Learning success in the new normal? Internet Research, 33(1), 410–441. 10.1108/INTR-05-2021-0310
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kim-Soon, N., Rahman, A., & Ahmed, M. (2014). E-service quality in higher education and frequency of use of the service. International Education Studies, 7(3), 1–10. 10.5539/ies.v7n3p1
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 2nd ed. Guilford Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. 4th ed. Edited by Todd D. Little. The Guilford Press.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lifuka, E. (2025). Open distance and e-learning (ODeL) assessment indicators for quality learning. International Journal of Professional Development, Learners and Learning, 7(1). 10.30935/ijpdll/15733
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Liu, S. (2019). Leave-p -Out Cross-Validation Test for Uncertain Verhulst-Pearl Model with Imprecise Observations. IEEE Access, 7, 131705–131709. 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2939386
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power Analysis and Determination of Sample Size for Covariance Structure Modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130–149. 10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Marsh, H. W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First- and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97(3), 562–582. 10.1037/0033-2909.97.3.562
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Martínez-Martín, R., & Lozano-Martín, A. M. (2021). Sustainability and conflict management in the university environment. Analysis of students of the degrees in labour relations and human resources, and social work at the university of granada (Spain). Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(23). 10.3390/su132313431
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Mejía-Madrid, G., & Molina-Carmona, R. (2016). Model for Quality Evaluation and Improvement of Higher Distance Education based on Information Technology. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. Association for Computing Machinery (pp. 1171–1177). 10.1145/3012430.3012665
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Misaii, H., Khoshdel, A., Zareiyan, A., & Mohammadimehr, M. (2019). Evaluating the Educational Services Quality of a Military Medical University (SERVQUAL Model): A Descriptive Analytic Study. Journal of Archives in Military Medicine, In Press. 10.5812/jamm.92129
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Mursidi, A., & Soeharto. (2016). Introduction: Evaluation of Quality Assurance for Higher Educational Institutions Using Rasch Model. Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning, 1(1), 1–6. 10.26737/jetl.v1i1.25
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nasution, H., Fauzi, A., & Rini, E. S. (2019). The effect of e-service quality on e-loyalty through esatisfaction on students of Ovo application users at the faculty of economics and business, University of North Sumatra, Indonesia. European Journal of Management and Marketing Studies, 4(1). 10.5281/zenodo.3360880
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nsamba, A., Bopape, A., Lebeloane, B., & Lekay, L. (2021). Student support service excellence evaluation: Balancing the Iron Triangle of accessibility, cost-effectiveness and quality? Open Praxis, 13(1). 10.5944/openpraxis.13.1.1168
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Online Learning Consortium (2023). Devoted to Advancing Quality Digital Learning, Learn Anytime. Anywhere. Available at: https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/ (Accessed: 12 June 2023).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ortiz-López, A., Olmos-Migueláñez, S., & Sánchez-Prieto, J. C. (2020). E-Learning quality assessment in higher education: A mapping study. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. Association for Computing Machinery (pp. 833–838). 10.1145/3434780.3436602
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Osborne, J. W. (2014). Best Practices in Exploratory Factor Analysis. 1st edn. Createspace publishing.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Öztürk, M. (2024). Rethinking Online Assessment Quality From Pre-service Teachers Perspectives. Open Praxis, 16(4), 696–711. 10.55982/openpraxis.16.4.689
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Palvia, S., Aeron, P., Gupta, P., Mahapatra, D., Parida, R., Rosner, R., & Sindhi, S. (2018). Online Education: Worldwide Status, Challenges, Trends, and Implications. Journal of Global Information Technology Management. Taylor and Francis Inc., 233–241. 10.1080/1097198X.2018.1542262
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Future Research. Journal of Marketing, 49(4). 10.2307/1251430
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Perera, R. H. A. T., & Abeysekera, N. (2022). Factors affecting learners’ perception of e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 17(1), 84–100. 10.1108/AAOUJ-10-2021-0124
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Preacher, K. J., & MacCallum, R. C. (2002). Exploratory Factor Analysis in Behavior Genetics Research: Factor Recovery with Small Sample Sizes. Behavior Genetics, 32(2), 153–161. 10.1023/A:1015210025234
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Quality Matters (2021). The QM Process and Community Build Momentum. Available at: https://www.qualitymatters.org/why-quality-matters/about-qm (Accessed: 2 September 2022).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ramdass, K., & ṊEmavhola, F. (2018). Quality Practices: An Open Distance Learning Perspective. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 234–246. 10.17718/tojde.382806
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rassia, K., & Manousou, E. (2025). Revising Assessment Regulations in Open and Distance Education in the Age of AI. European Journal of Alternative Education Studies, 10(2). 10.46827/ejae.v10i2.6212
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rosenberg, H., Sabag-Ben Porat, C., & Billig, M. (2023). Ultra-Orthodox Telelearning During COVID-19: Parent, Teacher, and Principal Perspectives on Its Effectiveness. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 22, 581–599. 10.28945/5234
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sadikin, A., & Hamidah, A. (2020). Pembelajaran Daring di Tengah Wabah Covid-19: (Online Learning in the Middle of the Covid-19 Pandemic). BIODIK: Juornal Ilmiah Pendidikan Biologi, 6(2), 214–224. 10.22437/bio.v6i2.9759
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Saleem, F., AlNasrallah, W., Malik, M., & Rehman, S. (2022). Factors Affecting the Quality of Online Learning During COVID-19: Evidence From a Developing Economy. Frontiers in Education, 7. 10.3389/feduc.2022.847571
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Salvador, L. C. R., Llerena, C. L. A., & Nguyen, H. P. D. (2021). Digital Education. Security science journal, 2(2), 65–76. 10.37458/ssj.2.2.4
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Samyan, N., & St Flour, P. O. (2021). The impact of cloud computing on e-Learning during COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Studies in Education and Science (IJSES), 2(2), 146–172.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schoonenboom, J., & Johnson, R. B. (2017). How to Construct a Mixed Methods Research Design. Kolner Z Soz Sozpsychol, 69(Suppl 2), 107–131. 10.1007/s11577-017-0454-1
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schumacker, R., & Lomax, R. (2012). A Beginner’s Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. Routledge. 10.4324/9780203851319
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shahzad, A., Hassan, R., Aremu, A., Hussain, A., & Lodhi, R. (2021). Effects of COVID-19 in E-learning on higher education institution students: the group comparison between male and female. Quality and Quantity, 55(3), 805–826. 10.1007/s11135-020-01028-z
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shao, Y., & Kang, S. (2021). Instructional Design for EFL Reading at Senior High Schools from the Perspective of Thinking Quality. English Language Teaching, 14(12), 144–153. 10.5539/elt.v14n12p144
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sharifi, A. (2022). An overview and thematic analysis of research on cities and the COVID-19 pandemic: Toward just, resilient, and sustainable urban planning and design. iScience, 25(11), 105297. 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105297
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shek, D. T. L., & Yu, L. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS: a demonstration. International Journal on Disability and Human Development, 13(2). 10.1515/ijdhd-2014-0305
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Slusky, L. (2020). Cybersecurity of Online Proctoring Systems. Journal of International Technology and Information Management, 29(1), 56–83. 10.58729/1941-6679.1445
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Steiger, J. H. (2007). Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(5), 893–898. 10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.017
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Supiyati, S., Halqi, M., & Rasidi, A. (2022). Students’ perception of communication and collaboration effectiveness in online learning mathematics during the COVID-19. Jurnal Elemen, 8(1), 263–275. 10.29408/jel.v8i1.4626
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. 5th edn. Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Taha, S., & Kavehrad, M. (2004). Dynamic bandwidth allocation in multi-class connection-oriented networks. Computer Communications [Preprint]. 10.1016/S0140-3664(03)00145-2
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Thirumaran, M., Kalaivani, T., & Karishma, S. (2020). Recommending Web Service by Predicting Quality of Service using Hidden Markov Model. In International Conference on Systems Computation, Automation and Network 2019. IEEE. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341079834.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Uedufy (2022). How To Interpret Model Fit Results In AMOS. Available at: https://uedufy.com/how-to-interpret-model-fit-results-in-amos/ (Accessed: 13 November 2022).
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Upadhyaya, J., & Ahuja, N. J. (2017). Quality of Service in Cloud Computing in Higher Education: A Critical Survey and Innovative Model. In Proceedings of the International Conference on IoT in Social, Mobile, Analytics and Cloud (I-SMAC 2017) (pp. 137–140). IEEE. 10.1109/I-SMAC.2017.8058324
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Vaismoradi, M., Turunen, H., & Bondas, T. (2013). Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing & Health Sciences, 15(3), 398–405. 10.1111/nhs.12048
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wang, Y. L., Luor, T., Luarn, P., & Lu, H. S. (2015). Contribution and trend to quality research–a literature review of SERVQUAL model from 1998 to 2013. Informatica Economica, 19(1), 34–45. 10.12948/issn14531305/19.1.2015.03
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Wargadinata, W., Maimunah, I., Dewi, E., & Rofiq, Z. (2020). Student’s Responses on Learning in the Early COVID-19 Pandemic. Tadris: Journal Keguruan dan Ilmu Tarbiyah, 5(1), 141–153. 10.24042/tadris.v5i1.6153
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Weimin, Y., & Dhanarajan, G. (1999). Quality Assurance in Open and Distance Learning. The Commonwealth of Learning.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
West, R. F., Meserve, R. J., & Stanovich, K. E. (2012). Cognitive sophistication does not attenuate the bias blind spot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 506–519. 10.1037/a0028857
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Xu, M., Cui, L., Wang, H., & Bi, Y. (2009). A multiple QoS constrained scheduling strategy of multiple workflows for cloud computing. In Proceedings – 2009 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing with Applications, ISPA 2009 (pp. 629–634). 10.1109/ISPA.2009.95
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yu, Q. (2022). Factors Influencing Online Learning Satisfaction. Front Psychol, 13, 852360. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.852360
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zhai, X., Wang, X., Han, A., Tong, J., Nie, Y., & Xu, Y. (2023). Identification and simulation of key influencing factors of online health information service quality from the perspective of information ecology. Library & Information Science Research, 45(1), 101218. 10.1016/j.lisr.2022.101218
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Zuhairi, A, Raymundo, M. R. D. R., & Mir, K. (2020). Implementing quality assurance system for open and distance learning in three Asian open universities: Philippines, Indonesia and Pakistan. Asian Association of Open Universities Journal, 15(3), 297–320. 10.1108/AAOUJ-05-2020-0034
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Articles in this issue

DOI: https://doi.org/10.55982/openpraxis.18.1.1003 | Journal eISSN: 2304-070X

Journal RSS Feed

Language: English

Page range: 66 - 85

Submitted on: Aug 24, 2025

Accepted on: Dec 15, 2025

Published on: Feb 24, 2026

Published by: International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)

In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

Keywords:

Quality of Service,

Open Distance Electronic Learning,

Framework,

Validation,

QoS Elements,

Secure Online Assessment,

Cheating Prevention,

Network Bandwidth Management,

Conflict Management,

Higher Education in Africa

© 2026 Prince Yaw Owusu Amoako, Ernest Mnkandla, Michael Agyemang Adarkwah, published by International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE)
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.

Volume 18 (2026): Issue 1