A Systematic Review of e-Portfolio Use During the Pandemic: Inspiration for Post-COVID-19 Practices

Search Criteria

Before any search was conducted, inclusion criteria were established to decide which articles would and would not be included in the final list (see Figure 1). Included are empirical studies published during the last three years that address both the usage of e-portfolios in education and the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure 1

Search Strategy

This study seeks to present a complete picture of empirical research without the bias of only including papers written in English. As a result, review articles written in English, Chinese, and Spanish were included in the initial search. In each of the three languages, different variants of the following keywords were utilized (the boolean operators “AND” and “OR” were employed to separate the keywords): “e-portfolio,” “electronic portfolio,” “digital portfolio,” and “COVID-19.” Two researchers produced search strings in three languages based on these terms (see Figure 2). Due to the fact that different databases contain academic publications in different languages, six academic databases that cover these three languages were chosen: Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, ERIC, Science Direct, Dialnet, and China Academic Journals Full-text Database (also known as CNKI). In light of COVID-19’s emphasis on e-portfolio usage in higher education, a publication date filter after 2020 and a higher education descriptor were adopted throughout the search.

Figure 2

Paper Selection and Extraction

Using the predetermined search criteria, 221 publications were identified: ERIC (n = 36), Web of Science (n = 83), Scopus (n = 8), Science Direct (n = 82), Dianet (n = 12), and CNKI (n = 0). The publications were then downloaded and uploaded to Rayyan, a collaborative platform for systematic literature reviews (Ouzzani et al., 2016). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) reporting guidelines (Page et al., 2021) were utilized for data screening and eligibility assessment (see Figure 3). The tool Rayyan discovered five duplicates, which were automatically eliminated. Rayyan’s initial screening of two hundred and sixteen articles was fruitful. Then, two researchers examined the titles, keywords, and abstracts using agreed-upon inclusion criteria. During this process, one hundred eighty-five papers that did not match the target criteria were excluded. After the screening, thirty-one papers were searched for retrieval. Then, the researchers downloaded the full text of the papers and conducted the eligibility check using the previously stated criteria. Nineteen of them were excluded, leaving twelve empirical publications to finalize the systematic review. There were no articles written in Chinese from the CNKI database among the publications included in this study; the final list contained eleven papers written in English and one in Spanish.

Figure 3

Retrieved Data Analysis

The collected data was recorded in an Excel Sheet for analysis, adapting the instrument developed in early stages of the research, in which qualitative data is collected (Zhang & Tur, 2022). It is important to note that the analysis involved careful reading and synthesis of the findings. The results from the articles were categorized into different themes. Each theme was guided by the previously stated research questions Subsequently, a qualitative analysis was conducted, wherein the texts were extracted and compared across recurring themes, considering the various contexts in which e-portfolios were implemented in educational settings during the pandemic. To increase the efficiency and efficacy of the qualitative analytic process, computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) was utilized rather than manual analysis (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2011). Following the final selection of papers, NVivo, the CAQDAS tool, was used as a data analytics tool to further analyze the selections led by the predefined research questions. NVivo is believed to be one of the most often used software applications for qualitative data analysis in educational research (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2011). Using NVivo, this study applied the Eight Step Pedagogy (N7 + 1) instructional paradigm, which includes three phases, preparation, analysis, and writing, proposed by O’Neill et al. (2018):

• Preparation

  • Step 1: Set up NVivo project

  • Step 2: Search literature using the NCapture tool

  • Step 3: Sort literature, prepare Endnote, and import into NVivo

• Analysis

  • Step 4: Classify literature and create a snapshot of your NVivo project

  • Step 5: Visualize data

  • Step 6: Perform 1st-level descriptive and topic coding of literature for themes

• Writing a Literature Review

  • Step 7: Summarize your NVivo project

  • Plus 1: Write the literature review

The N7 + 1 steps entail creating an NVivo project, importing and categorizing the literature, and then categorizing and displaying the data to produce review topics (O’Neill et al., 2018). The study provides a detailed account of the qualitative analysis methods and the process of qualitatively coding the papers.

RQ1: Characteristics of the literature about e-portfolios during the pandemic

To address RQ 1, the study compiled and categorized the bibliometric data of eligible empirical studies (see Table 1). All papers were published during the previous three years, 2020, 2021, and 2022, and are applicable to higher education contexts. The majority of the studies examine the use of e-portfolios during the COVID-19 pandemic from the students’ perspective, either by investigating the students’ perceptions or their e-portfolio work. Some publications also involve teachers and institutions of higher education in their empirical research in the settings of virtual classrooms, including virtual emergency education due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the emergence of Open Distance eLearning (ODeL). Several publications addressed the use of e-portfolios in clinical practice, such as teaching practicum and other supervised professional on-the-job training. Regarding the publisher and their types, the vast majority of the selections (n = 10, 83%) were publications from different journals. However, one was from a chapter in a book titled Teaching, technology, and teacher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Stories from the field, and another was from conference proceedings. When it comes to the index information, most of the papers are indexed by Scopus (n = 9, 75%), and some of them are indexed by Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) and Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) (n = 2, 16.7%, respectively). There is also one publication indexed by the Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) and one by Crossref and Google Scholar.

The selected articles reflect a variety of countries across multiple continents, including African, European, North American, and Asian nations (see the countries in Figure 4).

Figure 4

Regarding the research methodology, the following findings were uncovered (see Figure 5): Most of the research applied qualitative approaches (n = 11, 92%), or involved exploratory and descriptive research in a variety of ways. Additionally, only one study combined quantitative and qualitative methodologies through factor analysis and descriptive statistics, and another was fully quantitative through the use of a survey.

Figure 5

NVivo was used to code the selected papers and explore the underlying themes. An item cluster diagram of these themes was created to illustrate the synthesized themes found in these articles, highlighting that relevant factors in different studies were clustered together into the same category (see Figure 6). Some research (n = 3, 25%) specifically focused on e-portfolio use in practicum, including teaching internships and other clinical practice; two studies specifically investigated e-portfolio use associated with Learning Management Systems (LMS). The vast majority of reviewed empirical studies (n = 11, 92%) were contextualized in the setting of virtual emergency learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, a variety of e-portfolio practices were discovered. Almost half of the empirical research (n = 5, 42%) made use of the e-portfolio in diverse ways as an assessment tool for summative and formative assessments, which are linked to formal and informal learning as well as the visualization of learning outcomes (n = 4, 33%). One study implemented e-portfolios as the approach for formative assessment to engage students by introducing self-directed mini-projects, which are associated with project-based learning (PBL). The selected publications included a wide range of topics related to learner engagement. Some papers focused specifically on students’ engagement during the e-portfolio implementation process, while others expounded on self-regulated learning (SRL) and self-directed learning (SDL) (n = 3, 25%). Notably, the reviewed research covered collaborative learning widely. Most papers addressed the importance of collaboration in e-portfolio implementation; some (n = 3, 25%) concentrated primarily on virtual teams and learning communities.

Figure 6

RQ2: Strengths and challenges, usage and design, and recommendations

In the reviewed articles, the benefits of adopting e-portfolios into education during the COVID-19 pandemic were described in great detail; nevertheless, several underlying concerns and hurdles were also noted as needing to be addressed.

All studies stated benefits such as enabling self-regulated/self-directed learning and encouraging autonomous learning, while slightly more than half of them focused on their ability to facilitate collaboration (n = 7, 58%). Among other of the most commonly cited (between 33% and 42% of them) benefits of e-portfolio implementation during the COVID-19 pandemic are enabling reflective and effective learning (Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022; Tucker et al., 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022), increasing student involvement (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Tucker et al., 2021), developing professionalism (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Miyoshi et al., 2021; Rodriguez et al., 2022; Tucker et al., 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022), facilitating clinical practice (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Miyoshi et al., 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022), and fostering 21st-century skills, such as problem-solving abilities (Ismailov & Laurier, 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022). In addition, the selected articles saw e-portfolios as authentic learning tools to enhance formative assessment, leveraging existing knowledge and facilitating reflective, critical, and creative learning (Domene-Martos et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Rodriguez et al., 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). Other focuses are on fostering metacognitive capacity, and improving learning outcomes management by visualizing learners’ progress with educators’ help and lifelong learning (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). With lower frequency, e-portfolios were viewed as a very flexible instrument that helps students build technological confidence (Viscarret et al., 2022).

In addition to discussing the advantages of electronic portfolios in higher education, implementation obstacles, and concerns were also explored. Among all, it can be seen that the main difficulties are due to technical difficulties with e-portfolios, learners’ unfamiliarity with e-portfolios, issues of accessibility, along with underdeveloped systems, and a lack of guidance and support, which results in a lack of common knowledge when utilizing e-portfolios (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Miyoshi et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). Derived from this, some work relates to an overwhelming workload and increased working time while creating e-portfolios (Modise, 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022). Furthermore, insufficient input from lecturers or teachers was discovered in some practices (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). On the contrary, some practitioners were found to be excessively monitoring the learners throughout their e-portfolio implementation journey (Viscarret et al., 2022). The open access to e-portfolios is also controversial, and some studies raise discussion on privacy issues (Rodriguez et al., 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022) and plagiarism problems because it might facilitate unethical behaviour if it isn’t properly addressed (Rodriguez et al., 2022).

In the reviewed empirical research, e-portfolios were utilized in various ways, including reflection and feedback, assessment, learning evidence gathering, and showcasing. The most mentioned way to utilize e-portfolios is to use them as tools to facilitate reflection and receive feedback from lecturers and classmates (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Miyoshi et al., 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022; Tucker et al., 2021). The use of e-portfolios in formative and summative assessment is also extensively discussed in the selected publications (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Miyoshi et al., 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022; Tucker et al., 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022). Apart from that, e-portfolios are used to collect learning evidence (Miyoshi et al., 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022) and showcase learning outcomes (Miyoshi et al., 2021).

For the e-portfolio implementation designs, the study identified various models and tools from reviewing the chosen empirical studies that address e-portfolio use during the pandemic. Miyoshi et al. (2021) proposed an e-portfolio model that addresses five aspects: collect, reflect, self-regulate, integrate, and collaborate. Rodriguez et al.’s (2022) e-portfolio practice used a project-based assessment of the learning model. Each lecturer supervised five students; students were asked to complete formative assessments via e-portfolio and present them to supervisors to seek feedback weekly; the summative assessment was also conducted at the end using e-portfolios. Self-evaluation and peer evaluation were also incorporated into the whole process. Similarly, Tucker et al. (2021) applied self-directed mini-projects using e-portfolios to engage learners. In the setting of a university second-year level Design for Manufacturability course, mini-projects were scaffolded, comprising complicated design projects broken down into smaller components and integrating e-portfolios (Tucker et al., 2021). Tucker et al. (2021) further stated that the progression of scaffolded mini-projects provides an opportunity for students to develop and exhibit essential engineering abilities, particularly when presented in conjunction with teaching-learning-assessment via e-portfolios. Other implementation models that were widely talked about were collaborative, as stated in the previous section, including virtual teams (Ismailov & Laurier, 2021) and Community of Inquiry (CoI) (Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022). These models require a higher level of collaboration to engage learners and facilitate the learning process, as well as to address the unprecedented challenges in educational provision during the pandemic.

Regarding the systems for e-portfolios implementation, it was discovered that most empirical research associates e-portfolio implementation with the Learning Management System (LMS) (n = 8, 67%), such as Moodle (Miyoshi et al., 2021), Sakai LMS: Sakai Learning Management System (Viscarret et al., 2022), and myUniSA (Mudau & Modise, 2022). The most commonly used e-portfolio platform in the reviewed studies was Mahara (Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022). Google Sites was also utilized in a preservice teacher training practice (Tucker et al., 2021). Other tools were also mentioned, such as One Drive, Google Apps, Microsoft Teams, and social media platforms (i.e., Blog, WhatsApp, and Facebook) (Domene-Martos et al., 2021; Ismailov & Laurier, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022). Domene-Martos et al. (2021) remarked that OneDrive emphasized the convenience of organizing and securing the material to have all the information on the subject better organized, which is consistent with the learner autonomy dimension since it promotes the organization of the material. During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was believed that incorporating social media into Open Distance eLearning (ODeL) settings would enhance student engagement (Mudau & Modise, 2022).

Based on empirical research on e-portfolio practice in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, the reviewed publications provided diverse recommendations for using e-portfolios in higher education teaching and learning. The paper synthesized the papers and provided a summary of the suggestions made in the reviewed papers (see Table 2), to further inspire post-pandemic practices in e-portfolio implementation.

Bibliometric Insights on E-portfolio Use Amidst COVID-19

The bibliometric analysis and thematic synthesis of recent empirical studies on e-portfolios in higher education reveal an international academic effort to grasp their function during the COVID-19 pandemic. The emphasis on student experiences and perspectives, particularly in the context of emergency remote learning, highlights the importance of learner-centered research. The use of qualitative approaches in the studies indicates a desire for an in-depth understanding of e-portfolio adoption and its impact on learning.

The research’s geographic diversity suggests that e-portfolios have worldwide importance, highlighting the necessity for flexible teaching tools across different cultural contexts. Thematic findings show that e-portfolios are used in various ways, including as assessment tools, supporting practicums, and facilitating collaborative and self-directed learning. This indicates their ability to develop innovative teaching techniques and increase learner engagement. Integrating Learning Management Systems and using e-portfolios in project-based learning demonstrate their adaptability and importance in the changing educational landscape.

Advantages, Concerns, and Continued Relevance

E-portfolios have been leveraged as dynamic tools to improve student engagement, improve their metacognitive skills, foster professionalism, and develop 21st-century skills (Ismailov & Laurier, 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Rodriguez et al., 2022). The self-regulated, autonomous nature of e-portfolios has shown evidence in empowering students to take ownership of their learning, a shift that aligns with the contemporary educational paradigm favoring student-centered learning (Devarajoo, 2020; Domene-Martos et al., 2021). Prior research, both before (Barrett, 2009) and after the COVID-19 pandemic (Whitney et al., 2021; Zhang & Tur, 2022), supports these findings. Although e-portfolio use is typically viewed as an individual and self-directed learning method, collaboration is vital in the implementation process (Tur & Urbina, 2016). Zubizarreta (2009) identified collaboration as one of the essential e-portfolio development processes. Effective teamwork in e-portfolio practice may maximize its benefits and maximize students’ knowledge development. Compared with e-portfolio research prior to the pandemic (Zhang & Tur, 2022), the reviewed e-portfolio studies during the pandemic mainly highlight the benefits of e-portfolios in facilitating online collaboration, self-regulated learning, and autonomous learning, which are particularly relevant in remote learning contexts.

Despite the recognized advantages, the e-portfolio implementation’s concerns and challenges during the pandemic are also identified. Technical difficulties, lack of familiarity and common knowledge, and insufficient pedagogical support are among the primary hurdles (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). Overwhelming workloads and increased working time might be caused by these issues, hindering the effectiveness of e-portfolios (Viscarret et al., 2022). These concerns stem from insufficient guidance and support from teachers and learning peers. In a post-COVID-19 context, addressing these issues is paramount for optimizing the use of e-portfolios. Institutions must provide ongoing technical support and develop training modules that enhance faculty and student proficiency in using e-portfolios (Abuzaid et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022). Educators should establish clear guidelines and rubrics and communicate them to students directly during the introduction and coaching sessions (Ismailov & Laurier, 2021; Modise, 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022). Furthermore, teachers can scaffold the e-portfolio creation process by using examples and templates with clear descriptions (Miyoshi et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022).

In contrast with insufficient teacher support, another issue related to collaboration is that some teachers excessively monitor the learners’ e-portfolio implementation journey (Viscarret et al., 2022). Consequently, the students are demotivated, and their learning agency is constrained. The balance between guidance and autonomy remains delicate. Educators should avoid micromanaging the e-portfolio process to prevent stifling student agency, which is foundational for self-directed learning (Viscarret et al., 2022). Instead, educators should serve more as facilitators, offering structure while allowing students the freedom to explore and express their learning journey and offering consistent and constructive feedback throughout learners’ e-portfolio learning journeys (Modise, 2021; Viscarret et al., 2022).

E-portfolio System Improvement

Another widespread criticism is that current e-portfolio systems are still underdeveloped; well-developed systems and technologies should be implemented to maximize the practical use of e-portfolio (Miyoshi et al., 2021; Modise, 2021). In the post-pandemic landscape, investing continuously in e-portfolio technologies is essential to ensure they remain current, accessible, and effective for various learning activities. This aligns with the historical development of e-portfolios in higher education, which has seen a steady integration of compatible concepts, new technologies, and pedagogical approaches (Farrell, 2020).

In the context of e-portfolios, system improvements are recognized as essential for enhancing the functionality and user experience of e-portfolio platforms. These improvements include technological upgrades and enhancements aimed at making e-portfolio platforms more effective, efficient, and user-friendly, which are crucial for their adoption and sustained use (Shroff et al., 2011). The integration of e-portfolio systems into the wider educational technology ecosystem is equally important, as it allows for compatibility and interoperability with other digital tools such as learning management systems (LMS), digital assessment platforms, and collaboration tools. This integration facilitates a more cohesive and streamlined learning environment where various applications work in unison, thereby simplifying the educational process for both students and educators.

Comprehensive Utilization of E-portfolios

The study also highlighted e-portfolio’s multifunctional role in the following areas based on reviewed empirical research: reflection and feedback, assessment, learning evidence collection, and showcasing. To realize the full potential of e-portfolios in teaching and learning, educators should implement these aspects of e-portfolios comprehensively. To maximize these benefits, educators should integrate e-portfolios to promote higher-order thinking and critical reflection. By providing reflection templates and guidance, educators can support students in deepening their self-reflection skills (Miyoshi et al., 2021; Modise, 2021; Mudau & Modise, 2022; Viscarret et al., 2022). Furthermore, it is critical to emphasize the significance of e-portfolios as evidence of learning and to actively gather multimodal artifacts such as discussion forum participation, podcasts, social media postings, and other multimedia content (texts, pictures, and audio) (Mudau & Modise, 2022).

The reviewed papers also addressed the fact that e-portfolios may also be used cross-disciplinarily; educators should support the integration of e-portfolios across various disciplines and include all faculty to help students progress (Viscarret et al., 2022). The cross-disciplinary potential of e-portfolios is an avenue that holds promise for broadening the scope of their application. Post-pandemic, educators across all disciplines should consider how e-portfolios can be tailored to their specific learning objectives and outcomes, fostering a more holistic educational experience that prepares students for the interdisciplinary nature of the professional world.

Post-pandemic Recommendations

As the educational area emerges from the shadow of the pandemic, the utility of e-portfolios extends beyond the immediate crisis response. They represent a crucial component of the evolving higher education landscape, which seeks to integrate the flexibility and accessibility gained through past experiences into enduring educational practices. This shift prompts reevaluating educational strategies to ensure they are well-suited for a post-pandemic world where remote learning has altered expectations and preferences (Zhang & Tur, 2022; Ismailov & Laurier, 2021) and in which collaboration among teachers and peers has been observed as a key element in successful educational experiences (Kajamaa et al., 2019).

The systematic review of the literature has provided a broad outline of these elements, offering substantial insights into the role of e-portfolios in a post-COVID-19 educational context. Based on the lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic, future educational practice with e-portfolios may consider addressing the following recommendations.