Art Official Intelligence: Music and Intellectual Property Philosophy in the New Age of Artificial Intelligence–Assisted Creativity
By: Chris Hubbles, Michele Newman and Jin Ha Lee
References
- Amabile, T. (2018). Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity. Routledge. 10.4324/9780429501234.
- Andersen, K., and Knees, P. (2016). Conversations with expert users in music retrieval and research challenges for creative MIR. In Proceedings of the 17th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR), pp. 122–128. New York, NY, USA, ISMIR.
https://archives.ismir.net/ismir2016/paper/000246.pdf . - Barshad, A. (2023). AI could usher in a new era of music. Will it suck? Wired.
https://www.wired.com/story/fake-drake-will-ai-music-suck . - Berkowitz, A. (2023). Algorithmic (in)tolerance: Experimenting with Beethoven’s music on social media platforms. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 6(1), 1–12. 10.5334/tismir.148.
- Boyle, J. (2008). The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind. Yale University Press. 10.12987/9780300142754.
- Chang, M., Druga, S., Fiannaca, A. J., Vergani, P., Kulkarni, C., Cai, C. J., and Terry, M. (2023). The prompt artists. In Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Creativity and Cognition (C&C), pp. 75–87. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3591196.3593515.
- Choi, Y., Moon, J., Yoo, J., and Hong, J.‑H. (2025). Understanding the potentials and limitations of prompt‑based music generative AI. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), pp. 1–15. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3706598.3713762.
- Chung, J. J. Y. (2022). Artistic user expressions in AI‑powered creativity support tools. In Adjunct Proceedings of the 35th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, pp. 1–4. Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3526114.3558531.
- Chung, J. J. Y., He, S., and Adar, E. (2022). Artist support networks: Implications for future creativity support tools. In Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS), pp. 232–246. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3532106.3533505.
- Cirisano, T. (2021). Will avatars kill the radio stars? Inside today’s virtual artist record labels. Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/pro/virtual-artist-record-labels-avatars/ . - Coscarelli, J. (2023). An A.I. hit of fake ‘Drake’ and ‘The Weeknd’ rattles the music world. New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/19/arts/music/ai-drake-the-weeknd-fake.html . - Craig, C. (2025). The AI‑copyright trap. Chicago‑Kent Law Review, 100(1), 107–139.
https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cklawreview/vol100/iss1/8 . - Cros Vila, L., Sturm, B., Casini, L., and Dalmazzo, D. (2025). The AI music arms race: On the detection of AI‑generated music. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 8(1), 179–194. 10.5334/tismir.254.
- Deruty, E., Grachten, M., Lattner, S., Nistal, J., and Aouameur, C. (2022). On the development and practice of AI technology for contemporary popular music production. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 5(1), 35–49. 10.5334/tismir.100.
- Desai, D., and Lemley, M. A. (2022). Editorial: Scarcity, regulation, and the abundance society. Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics, 7, 1104460. 10.3389/frma.2022.1104460.
- Fu, Y., Newman, M., Going, L., Feng, Q., and Lee, J. H. (2025). Exploring the collaborative co‑creation process with AI: A case study in novice music production. In Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS), pp. 1298–1312. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3715336.3735829.
- Gelineck, S., and Serafin, S. (2009). From idea to realization: Understanding the compositional processes of electronic musicians. In Proceedings of the 2009 Audio Mostly Conference.
https://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/from-idea-to-realization-understanding-the-compositional-processe/ . - Gero, K. I., Long, T., and Chilton, L. B. (2023). Social dynamics of AI support in creative writing. In Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), pp. 1–15. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3544548.3580782.
- Goold, P., and Simon, D. (2024). On copyright utilitarianism. Indiana Law Journal, 99(3), 2. 10.2139/ssrn.4408039.
- Gordon, W. (1993). A property right in self‑expression: Equality and individualism in the natural law of intellectual property. Yale Law Journal, 102, 1533–1609. 10.2307/796826.
- Guo, A., Wang, L., Heer, J., and Zhang, A. (2024). Preserving writer values in AI writing assistance tools. In Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Intelligent and Interactive Writing Assistants (In2Writing), pp. 58–61. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3690712.3690727.
- Hammad, N., Fraser, C. A., Harpstead, E., Hammer, J., and Dontcheva, M. (2025). “It’s more of a vibe I’m going for”: Designing text‑to‑music generation interfaces for video creators. In Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS), pp. 2738–2754. New York, NY, USA. Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3715336.3735814.
- He, J., Houde, S., and Weisz, J. D. (2025). Which contributions deserve credit? Perceptions of attribution in human‑AI co‑creation. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), pp. 1–18. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3706598.3713522.
- Hettinger, E. (1989). Justifying intellectual property. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 18, 31–52.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2265190 . - Hiatt, B. (2025). AI band the Velvet Sundown officially confirm they’re AI — and a provocation. Rolling Stone.
https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/ai-band-the-velvet-sundown-confirm-ai-1235379354/ . - Himma, K. (2008). The justification of intellectual property: Contemporary philosophical disputes. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59, 1143–1161. 10.1002/asi.20853.
- Himma, K. (2012). Toward a Lockean moral justification of legal protection of intellectual property. San Diego Law Review, 49, 1105–1182.
https://digital.sandiego.edu/sdlr/vol49/iss4/7 . - Holzapfel, A., Sturm, B., and Coeckelbergh, M. (2018). Ethical dimensions of music information retrieval technology. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 1(1), 44–55. 10.5334/tismir.13.
- Hristov, K. (2017). Artificial intelligence and the copyright dilemma. IDEA, 57, 431–454.
https://ssrn.com/abstract=2976428 . - Huang, C.‑Z. A., Koops, H. V., Newton‑Rex, E., Dinculescu, M., and Cai, C. J. (2020). AI song contest: Human‑AI co‑creation in songwriting. arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.05388. 10.48550/arXiv.2010.05388.
- Huang, J., Yew, R.‑J., and Venkatasubramanian, S. (2025). Copyrighting generative AI co‑creations. In Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference (DIS), pp. 1156–1164. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3715336.3735683.
- Hughes, J. (1988). The philosophy of intellectual property. Georgetown Law Review, 77, 287–366.
https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/glj77&i=309 . - Hughes, J., and Merges, R. (2016). Copyright and distributive justice. Notre Dame Law Review, 92, 513–577.
https://ssrn.com/abstract=2758845 . - Joffrain, T. (2001). Deriving a (moral) right for creators. Texas International Law Journal, 36, 735–793.
https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/tilj36&i=749 . - Juzon, H. (2024). Fake Drake? AI music generation implicates copyright and the right of publicity. Washington Law Review, 99, 987–1015.
https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wlr/vol99/iss3/9 . - Kaminski, M. (2017). Authorship, disrupted: AI authors in copyright and First Amendment law. UC Davis Law Review, 51, 589–616.
https://ssrn.com/abstract=3086912 . - Kanhov, E., Kaila, A.‑K., and Sturm, B. (2024). Innovation, data colonialism and ethics: Critical reflections on the impacts of AI on Irish traditional music. Journal of New Music Research, 53(1–2), 47–63. 10.1080/09298215.2024.2442359.
- Katz, L. (2025). 1,000 musicians drop ‘silent album’ to protest AI copyright stance. Forbes.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/lesliekatz/2025/02/25/1000-plus-musicians-drop-silent-album-to-protest-ai-copyright-tweaks/ . - Kelly, S. (2025). Beatles nab first Grammy for an AI‑assisted song. CNet.
https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/beatles-nab-first-grammy-for-an-ai-assisted-song/ . - Kessel, M. (2024). Holograms are taking over the world! An analysis on legal implications holograms pose in right of publicity and copyright law. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal, 35, 200–243.
https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/iplj/vol35/iss1/4 . - Knearem, T., Wang, X., Wan, J., and Carroll, J. M. (2019). Crafting in a community of practice: Resource sharing as key in supporting creativity. In Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Creativity and Cognition (C&C), pp. 83–94. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3325480.3325487.
- Kretschmer, M., and Kawohl, F. (2004).
The history and philosophy of copyright . In S. Frith and L. Marshall (Eds.), Music and Copyright (2nd ed., pp. 21–53). Routledge. - Krol, S. J., Llano Rodriguez, M. T., and Loor Paredes, M. J. (2025). Exploring the needs of practising musicians in co‑creative AI through co‑design. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI). New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3706598.3713894.
- Kyle, P. (2025). AI Opportunities Action Plan (Technical Report). Department for Science, Innovation & Technology, United Kingdom.
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-opportunities-action-plan/ . - Landes, W., and Posner, R. (1989). An economic analysis of copyright law. Journal of Legal Studies, 18, 325–363. 10.1086/468150.
- Lemley, M. (2024). How generative AI turns copyright upside down. Columbia Science & Technology Law Review, 25, 190–212.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4517702 . - Lemley, M., and Casey, B. (2021). Fair learning. Texas Law Review, 99, 743–785.
https://texaslawreview.org/fair-learning/ . - Lessig, L. (2004). Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity. Self‑published.
- Lessig, L. (2006). Code 2.0. Basic Books.
- Levine, R. (2024). Is streaming broken? The big AI fraud indictment raises serious questions. Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/pro/is-streaming-broken-ai-fraud-indictment-serious-questions/ . - Levine, R. (2025). Germany’s GEMA sues U.S.‑based generative AI company over copyright infringement. Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/pro/germany-gema-legal-action-suno-copyright-infringement/ . - Lewis, I. (2023). Liam Gallagher shares verdict on AI‑generated Oasis album by ‘AIsis’. The Independent.
https://www.the-independent.com/arts-entertainment/music/news/liam-gallagher-ai-oasis-album-b2323222.html . - Locke, J. (1689). Two Treatises of Government. Awnsham Churchill.
- Louie, R., Coenen, A., Huang, C. Z., Terry, M., and Cai, C. J. (2020). Novice‑AI music co‑creation via AI‑steering tools for deep generative models. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), pp. 1–13. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3313831.3376739.
- Lovato, J., Zimmerman, J., Smith, I., Dodds, P., and Karson, J. L. (2025). Foregrounding artist opinions: A survey study on transparency, ownership, and fairness in AI generative art. In Proceedings of the 2024 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, pp. 905–916. AAAI Press.
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/3716662.3716742 . - Manesh, D.,
Jr. , D, Bowman., and Lee, S. W. (2024). Sharp: Exploring version control systems in live coding music. In Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Creativity & Cognition (C&C), pp. 426–437. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3635636.3656195. - Manyika, J. (2022). Getting AI right: Introductory notes on AI & society. Daedalus, 151(2), 5–27. 10.1162/daed_e_01897.
- Menell, P. (2000). Intellectual property: General theories. In In Encyclopedia of Law and Economics (Vol. 2, pp. 129–188). Edward Elgar.
- Merges, R. (2011). Justifying Intellectual Property. Harvard University Press.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24hgdd . - Micchi, G., Bigo, L., Giraud, M., Groult, R., and Levé, F. (2021). I keep counting: An experiment in human/AI co‑creative songwriting. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 4(1), 263–275. 10.5334/tismir.93.
- Mill, J. S. (1863). Utilitarianism. Parker, Son and Bourn.
- Moore, A. (2008). Personality‑based, rule‑utilitarian, and Lockean justifications of intellectual property. In K. Himma and H. Tavani (Eds.), The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics (pp. 105–130). Wiley.
https://ssrn.com/abstract=1980852 . - Moore, A. (2012). A Lockean theory of intellectual property revisited. San Diego Law Review, 49, 1069–1104.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2099073 . - Morreale, F. (2021). Where does the buck stop? Ethical and political issues with AI in music creation. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 4(1), 105–113. 10.5334/tismir.86.
- Morris, L., Leger, R., Newman, M., Burgoyne, J. A., Groves, R., Mangal, N., and Lee, J. H. (2024). Human‑AI music process: A dataset of AI‑supported songwriting processes from the AI Song Contest. In Proceedings of the 25th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR), pp. 397–404. San Francisco, CA, USA, ISMIR. 10.5281/zenodo.14877357.
- Morris, L., Newman, M., Tang, X., Singh, R., Vásquez, M. V., Leger, R., and Lee, J. H. (2025). Expanding the HAISP dataset: AI’s impact on songwriting across two contests. In Proceedings of the 26th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR). ISMIR. 10.5281/zenodo.17811547.
- Mossoff, A. (2003). What is property? Putting the pieces back together. Arizona Law Review, 45, 371–443.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.438780 . - Naqvi, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence, copyright, and copyright infringement. Marquette Intellectual Property Law Review, 24, 16–51.
https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/iplr/vol24/iss1/4/ . - Netanel, N. (1996). Copyright and a democratic civil society. Yale Law Journal, 106, 283–387. 10.2307/797212.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/797212 . - Newman, M., Morris, L., and Lee, J. H. (2023). Human‑AI music creation: Understanding the perceptions and experiences of music creators for ethical and productive collaboration. In Proceedings of the 24th International Society for Music Information Retrieval Conference (ISMIR), pp. 80–88. Milan, Italy, ISMIR. 10.5281/zenodo.10265227.
- Ostermann, F., Vatolkin, I., and Rudolph, G. (2021). Evaluating creativity in automatic reactive accompaniment of jazz improvisation. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 4(1), 210–222. 10.5334/tismir.90.
- O’Toole, K., and Horvát, E.‑Á. (2024). Extending human creativity with AI. Journal of Creativity, 34(2), 100080. 10.1016/j.yjoc.2024.100080.
- Rajan, M. S. (2011). Moral Rights: Principles, Practice and New Technology. Oxford University Press.
- Register of Copyrights. (2024). Copyright and Artificial Intelligence, Part 1: Digital Replicas (Technical Report). United States Copyright Office.
https://www.copyright.gov/ai/Copyright-and-Artificial-Intelligence-Part-1-Digital-Replicas-Report.pdf . - Register of Copyrights. (2025a). Copyright and Artificial Intelligence, Part 2: Copyrightability (Technical Report). United States Copyright Office.
https://www.copyright.gov/ai/Copyright-and-Artificial-Intelligence-Part-2-Copyrightability-Report.pdf . - Register of Copyrights. (2025b). Copyright and Artificial Intelligence, Part 3: Generative AI Training (Technical Report, pre‑publication version). United States Copyright Office.
https://www.copyright.gov/ai/Copyright-and-Artificial-Intelligence-Part-3-Generative-AI-Training-Report-Pre-Publication-Version.pdf . - Robinson, K. (2023). What an anonymous artist taught us about the future of AI in music. Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/business/tech/ghostwriter-controversy-artificial-intelligence-drake-song-industry-impact-analysis-1235547560/ . - Robinson, K. (2024). Major labels sue AI firms Suno and Udio for alleged copyright infringement. Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/pro/major-label-lawsuit-ai-firms-suno-udio-copyright-infringement . - Rohrmeier, M. (2022). On creativity, music’s AI completeness, and four challenges for artificial musical creativity. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 5(1), 50–66. 10.5334/tismir.104.
- Roy, A. (2008). Intellectual property rights: A western tale. Asia Pacific Law Review, 16, 219–239. 10.1080/10192557.2008.11788187.
- Sag, M., and Yu, P. (2025). The globalization of copyright exceptions for AI training. Emory Law Journal, 74, 1163–1227.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4976393 . - Saw, C. (2023). Distinguishing the fair use and fair dealing doctrines in copyright law — much ado about nothing? Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice, 18, 848–866. 10.1093/jiplp/jpad096.
- Schurz, M. (2025). Fair use or foul play? Copyright law’s battle over using sound recordings in AI training. UC Law SF Communications and Entertainment Journal, 5, 87–117.
https://repository.uclawsf.edu/hastings_comm_ent_law_journal/vol48/iss1/5 . - Shneiderman, B. (2008).
Creativity support tools: A grand challenge for HCI researchers . In Engineering the User Interface: From Research to Practice, pp. 1–9. Springer. 10.1007/978-1-84800-136-7_1. - Siddiqui, M., Pea, R., and Subramonyam, H. (2025). Script&Shift: A layered interface paradigm for integrating content development and rhetorical strategy with LLM writing assistants. In Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI). New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3706598.3714119.
- Singer, H., and Rosenblatt, B. (2023). Key Changes: The Ten Times Technology Transformed the Music Industry. Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oso/9780197656891.001.0001.
- Sobel, B. (2024). Elements of style: Copyright, similarity, and generative AI. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 38, 49–106.
https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4832872 . - Sterman, S., Nicholas, M. J., and Paulos, E. (2022). Towards creative version control. Proceedings of the ACM on Human‑Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW2), 336. 10.1145/3555756.
- Stutz, C. (2023). The fake Drake AI song earned millions of streams — but will anyone get paid? Billboard.
https://www.billboard.com/pro/fake-drake-ai-song-earned-millions-streams-get-paid/ . - Tang, Y., Zhang, N., Ciancia, M., and Wang, Z. (2024). Exploring the impact of AI‑generated image tools on professional and non‑professional users in the art and design fields. In Companion Publication of the 2024 Conference on Computer‑Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing (CSCW Companion), pp. 451–458. New York, NY, USA, Association for Computing Machinery. 10.1145/3678884.3681890.
- Thaler, R., and Sunstein, C. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press.
- Vaidhyanathan, S. (2001). Copyrights and Copywrongs: The Rise of Intellectual Property and How It Threatens Creativity. New York University Press.
- Veltman, C. (2023). Heart on My Sleeve uses AI to simulate Drake and The Weeknd. NPR.
https://www.npr.org/2023/04/21/1171032649/ai-music-heart-on-my-sleeve-drake-the-weeknd . - Visram, T. (2025). Inside Elvis Evolution: AI and immersive tech bring the King’s life to the stage in London. Fast Company.
https://www.fastcompany.com/91368335/inside-elvis-evolution-ai-and-immersive-tech-bring-the-kings-life-to-the-stage-in-london . - Walmsley, J. (2021). Artificial intelligence and the value of transparency. AI & Society, 36(2), 585–595. 10.1007/s00146-020-01066-z.
- Wei, L.‑W. (2025). “I am creative, therefore I am employable”: Self‑creativity identity as a mediator of the AI‑unemployment anxiety link. Beijing International Review of Education, 7(3), 224–238. 10.1177/25902547251372084.
- White, A. (2019). A universal basic income in the (superstar) digital economy. Ethics and Social Welfare, 13, 64–78. 10.1080/17496535.2018.1512138.
- Wong, M. (2024). AI can’t make music. The Atlantic.
https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2024/07/generative-ai-music-suno-udio/679114/ . - Xu, F., Uszkoreit, H., Du, Y., Fan, W., Zhao, D., and Zhu, J. (2019). Explainable AI: A brief survey on history, research areas, approaches and challenges. In Proceedings of the 8th CCF International Conference on Natural Language Processing and Chinese Computing (NLPCC), pp. 563–574. Springer. 10.1007/978-3-030-32236-6_51.
- Yuan, Y., Cronin, C., Müllensiefen, D., Fujii, S., and Savage, P. E. (2023). Perceptual and automated estimates of infringement in 40 music copyright cases. Transactions of the International Society for Music Information Retrieval, 6(1), 117–134. 10.5334/tismir.151.
- Zhou, Z., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., and Sun, L. (2022). Transparent‑AI blueprint: Developing a conceptual tool to support the design of transparent AI agents. International Journal of Human‑Computer Interaction, 38(18–20), 1846–1873. 10.1080/10447318.2022.2093773.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/tismir.339 | Journal eISSN: 2514-3298
Language: English
Page range: 369 - 383
Submitted on: Sep 5, 2025
Accepted on: Apr 19, 2026
Published on: Jul 22, 2026
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
© 2026 Chris Hubbles, Michele Newman, Jin Ha Lee, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.