References
- 1‘Agreement between ABVV-BTB Union and Uber’ Eurofound (21 November 2022) <
https://apps.eurofound.europa.eu/platformeconomydb/agreement-between-abvvbtb-union-and-uber-110012 >. - 2‘Agreement to Collaborate between FNV and Temper’ Eurofound (22 January 2021) <
https://apps.eurofound.europa.eu/platformeconomydb/agreement-to-collaborate-between-fnv-and-temper-103131 >. - 3Amir Anwar M and Graham M, The Digital Continent: Placing Africa in Planetary Networks of Work (1st edn, Oxford University PressOxford 2022) <
https://academic.oup.com/book/38817 > accessed 30 September 2025. - 4‘An Overview of Gig Economy Legislation and the Protection of Workers’ Rights in Africa’ (Business & Human Rights Resource Centre 2024) <
https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/latest-news/an-overview-of-gig-economy-legislation-and-the-protection-of-workers-rights-in-africa/ >. - 5‘Australian Union Charter with Uber Shows That Respect for Gig Workers Can Pay Off’ International Transport Workers’Federation (2022) <
https://www.itfglobal.org/en/stories/australian-union-charter-uber-shows-respect-gig-workers-can-pay >. - 6Basualdo V and others, ‘Building Workers’ Power in Digital Capitalism: Old and New Labour Struggles’.
- 7Benedikt Frey C, ‘Virtual Migration Could Revive Growth’ Project Syndicate (3 November 2025) <
https://www.project-syndicate.org/magazine/virtual-migration-remote-work-addresses-growth-and-demographic-issues-by-carl-benedikt-frey-2025-03 >. - 8Centro de Estudios del Trabajo, ‘El sindicato que tiene en aprietos la integración de Cornershop con Uber en Chile – CETRA’ (29 May 2022) <
https://cetra.cl/?p=12394 > accessed 18 May 2024. - 9CEPAL and OIT, ‘Coyuntura Laboral En América Latina y El Caribe’ (2019) <
https://repositorio.cepal.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f2da9fd1-409a-4c34-a98f-665daff81c8d/content >. - 10Cherry M, ‘Dispatch – United States: “Proposition 22: A Vote on Gig Worker Status in California”’ [2021] All Faculty Scholarship <
https://scholarship.law.slu.edu/faculty/548 >. - 11Cherry MA, ‘Gig Economy: Settlements Leave Labor Issues Unsettled’ <
https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2776213 > accessed 21 May 2024. - 12Conradie K, ‘Platform Work in Africa: Job Quality, Resistance and Regulation’ (2022) <
https://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=161991 >. - 13Dados N and Connell R, ‘The Global South’ (2012) 11 Contexts 12. DOI: 10.1177/1536504212436479
- 14De Stefano V, ‘A More Comprehensive Approach to Platform-Work Litigation’ (Global Workplace Law & Policy, 28 November 2018) <
https://global-workplace-law-and-policy.kluwerlawonline.com/2018/11/28/a-more-comprensive-approach-to-platform-work-litigation/ > accessed 31 May 2024. - 15De Stefano V and Aloisi A, European Legal Framework for “Digital Labour Platforms”. (European Commission 2018).
- 16De Stefano V, Durri I, Stylogiannis C, Wouters M, ‘Platform Work and the Employment Relationship’ (2021).
- 17‘Digital Labour at Economic Margins: African Workers and the Global Information Economy by Mohammad Amir Anwar, Mark Graham :: SSRN’ <
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3499706 > accessed 9 October 2024. - 18Directive 1999/70/EC concerning the framework agreement on fixed-term work concluded by ETUC, UNICE and CEEP [1999] OJ L175/43.
- 19Elsley T and Snyman S, ‘Location-Based Platform Work in South Africa Mapping the Prospects for Organising’ (Labour Research Service 2023) <
https://www.lrs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Location-Based-Platform-Work-in-South-Africa-FINAL-20092023-.pdf >. - 20European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions., Measuring Varieties of Industrial Relations in Europe :A Quantitative Analysis. (Publications Office 2018) <
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2806/35632 > accessed 14 November 2024. - 21European Parliament, ‘REPORT on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Improving Working Conditions in Platform Work’ (2022) A9–0301/2022 <
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2022-0301_EN.html >. - 22European Union, Directive (EU) 2024/2831 on improving working conditions in platform work (23 October 2024)
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/2831/oj/eng accessed 30 October 2025. - 23‘Fairwork Kenya Ratings 2021: Labour Standards in the Gig Economy’ <
https://fair.work/en/fw/publications/fairwork-kenya-ratings-2021-labour-standards-in-the-gig-economy/ > accessed 18 May 2024. - 24Felix Azevedo E, ‘Algorithmic Mediated Management in Digital Platforms and Decent Work: A Study on Cyclist Delivery Drivers in Recife Pernambuco’ (Global Perspectives on Platforms, Labor & Social Reproduction, 27 July 2023).
- 25‘FNV Horecabond En Temper Verbreden Samenwerking En Gebruiksvergoeding Freelancers Verdwijnt’ FNV Horeca (11 December 2018) <
https://www.fnvhoreca.nl/actueel/nieuws/2107/fnv-horecabond-en-temper-verbreden-samenwerking-en-gebruiksvergoeding-freelancers-verdwijnt >. - 26Gaudio G, ‘Litigating the Algorithmic Boss in the EU: A (Legally) Feasible and (Strategically) Attractive Option for Trade Unions?’.
- 27Gilbert E, ‘Beyond the Usual Suspects: Invisible Labour(Ers) in Futures of Work’ (2023) 17 Geography Compass
e12675 . DOI: 10.1111/gec3.12675 - 28Hadwiger F, Realizing the Opportunities of the Platform Economy through Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining (ILO 2022) <
https://www.ilo.org/publications/realizing-opportunities-platform-economy-through-freedom-association-and-1 > accessed 2 December 2022. DOI: 10.54394/VARD7939 - 29Hartmann-Cortés K, ‘Dispatch No. 37 – Argentina How Did A Food-Delivery Platform’s Judgement Transform Freedom Of Association Into A Second-Class Right?’ Dispatch No. 37 – Argentina How Did A Food-Delivery Platform’s Judgement Transform Freedom Of Association Into A Second-Class Right? <
https://cllpj.law.illinois.edu/content/dispatches/2021/Dispatch-No.–37.pdf >. - 30Heeks R and others, Digital Labour Platforms in the Global South: Filling or Creating Institutional Voids? (2020). DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3645389
- 31Hießl C, ‘Case Law on the Classification of Platform Workers Cross-European Comparative Analysis and Tentative Conclusions’ (2024).
- 32Hießl C, ‘Jurisprudence of National Courts Confronted with Cases of Alleged Misclassification of Platform Workers: Comparative Analysis and Tentative Conclusions’ (2021). DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3839603
- 33Hießl C, ‘Multiparty Relationships in Platform Work: Cross-European Case Law Developments and Points of Departure for (Supranational) Regulation’ (2023) 14 European Labour Law Journal
514 . DOI: 10.1177/20319525231208637 - 34Iazzolino G, ‘Going Karura: Colliding Subjectivities and Labour Struggle in Nairobi’s Gig Economy’ [2021] LSE Research Online Documents on Economics <
https://ideas.repec.org//p/ehl/lserod/110950.html > accessed 5 June 2024. - 35ILO (ed), The Role of Digital Labour Platforms in Transforming the World of Work (ILO 2021).
- 36ILO, ‘Informalidad y Pobreza Laboral Lastran a Mercados de Trabajo En América Latina y El Caribe’ (Panorama Laboral 2022 de América Latina y el Caribe, 7 February 2023) <
https://www.ilo.org/americas/sala-de-prensa/WCMS_867505/lang--es/index.htm >. - 37Ilsøe A and Larsen TP, ‘Why Do Labour Platforms Negotiate? Platform Strategies in Tax-Based Welfare States’ (2023) 44 Economic and Industrial Democracy 6. DOI: 10.1177/0143831X211056974
- 38Ilsøe A and Söderqvist CF, ‘Will There Be a Nordic Model in the Platform Economy? Evasive and Integrative Platform Strategies in Denmark and Sweden’ (2023) 17 Regulation & Governance
608 . DOI: 10.1111/rego.12465 - 39International Labour Conference, 113th Session, ‘ILC.113/Report V(2): Realizing decent work in the platform economy’ (Geneva, 2025)
https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-02/ILC113-V%282%29-%5BWORKQ-241129-001%5D-Web-EN.pdf accessed 30 October 2025. - 40International Labour Conference, 114th Session, ‘ILC.114/Report V(3): Decent work in the platform economy’ (Geneva, 2026)
https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2025-08/ILC114-V%283%29-%5BWORKQ-250714-001%5D-Web-EN.pdf accessed 30 October 2025. - 41International Labour Organization, Convention (No 102) concerning Minimum Standards of Social Security (adopted 28 June 1952, entered into force 27 April 1955) 165 UNTS 352.102.
- 42ITUC, ‘Organising and Collective Bargaining in Non-Standard Forms of Work’ (2019) <
https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/organising_and_collective_bargaining_and_non-standard_forms_of_work_en.pdf >. - 43Jin L, Duke Kominers S and Shroff L, ‘A Labor Movement for the Platform Economy’ [2021] Harvard Business Review <
https://hbr.org/2021/09/a-labor-movement-for-the-platform-economy >. - 44Joyce S and Stuart M, ‘Trade Union Responses to Platform Work: An Evolving Tension between Mainstream and Grassroots Approaches’ [2021] A Modern Guide To Labour and the Platform Economy
177 . - 45Mugnolo J, Caparrós L, ‘Análisis jurídico sobre las relaciones de trabajo en los servicios de entrega de productos a domicilio a través de plataformas digitales en Argentina’ (30 October 2020) <
http://www.ilo.org/buenosaires/publicaciones/WCMS_761242/lang--es/index.htm > accessed 6 December 2023. - 46Kiaga A and Leung V, ‘The Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy in Africa’ (International Labour Organization 2020) <
https://www.ilo.org/publications/transition-informal-formal-economy-africa-0 >. - 47Lamannis M, ‘Collective Bargaining in the Platform Economy A Mapping Exercise of Existing Initiatives’.
- 48Mannan M and Pek S,
‘Solidarity in the Sharing Economy: The Role of Platform Cooperatives at the Base of the Pyramid’ in Israr Qureshi, Babita Bhatt and Dhirendra Mani Shukla (eds), Sharing Economy at the Base of the Pyramid (Springer Nature Singapore 2021) <https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-16-2414-8_11 > accessed 1 October 2025. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-2414-8_11 - 49Marenco M, ‘Contesting the Gig Economy: Food Delivery Riders in Italy’ (Futures of Work, 12 February 2020) <
https://futuresofwork.co.uk/2020/12/02/contesting-the-gig-economy-food-delivery-riders-in-italy/ > accessed 27 May 2024. - 50Martin-Caballero A, ‘New Regulations on Platform Work: Fragmented Responses to Issues of Work Fragmentation’ [2024] Capital & Class 03098168241248990.
- 51‘MinTrabajo Abre Investigación Contra Rappi – Ministerio Del Trabajo’ <
https://www.mintrabajo.gov.co/prensa/comunicados/2022/noviembre/mintrabajo-abre-investigacion-contra-rappi > accessed 5 June 2024. - 52National Institution for Transforming India (ed), ‘India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy Perspectives and Recommendations on the Future of Work’.
- 53Nowak J, ‘From Industrial Relations Research to Global Labour Studies: Moving Labour Research beyond Eurocentrism’ (2021) 18 Globalizations
1335 . DOI: 10.1080/14747731.2021.1874210 - 54Oxford Internet Institute, ‘Classification Struggles: How Do Workers React to Being Classified in Online Labour Markets?’ (2023) <
https://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/projects/classification-struggles-how-do-workers-react-to-being-classified-in-online-labour-markets/ >. - 55Palomo Vélez R and others, ‘El Debate Sobre La Laboralidad Del Trabajo Vía Plataformas Digitales En Chile y Algunos Problemas Conexos’ [2022] Revista Latinoamericana de Derecho Social
59 . DOI: 10.22201/iij.24487899e.2022.35.17272 - 56Patel L, Plagerson S and Chinyoka I,
‘Introduction to the Handbook on Social Protection and Social Development in the Global South’ in Leila Patel, Sophie Plagerson and Isaac Chinyoka (eds), Handbook on Social Protection and Social Development in the Global South (Edward Elgar Publishing 2023) <https://www.elgaronline.com/view/book/9781800378421/book-part-9781800378421-11.xml > accessed 1 October 2025. DOI: 10.4337/9781800378421.00011 - 57Perrin A, ‘La CGT Appelle Les Livreurs à La Grève “Partout En France”’ Lyon Capitale (30 October 2023) <
https://www.lyoncapitale.fr/actualite/la-cgt-appelle-les-livreurs-a-la-greve-partout-en-france >. - 58‘Platform Work in Developing Economies: Can Digitalisation Drive Structural Transformation? | International Labour Organization’ (31 December 2023) <
https://www.ilo.org/publications/platform-work-developing-economies-can-digitalisation-drive-structural > accessed 21 September 2024. - 59Potocka-Sionek N and Aloisi A,
‘The Spillover Effect of Algorithmic Management and How (Not) to Tame It’ , The Elgar Companion to Regulating Platform Work (Edward Elgar Publishing 2025) <https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781035321148/chapter14.xml > accessed 9 April 2025. - 60Prassl J, Humans as a Service, vol 1 (Oxford University Press 2018). DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198797012.001.0001
- 61Presidencia de la República, ‘Ministerio de Trabajo Propicia Histórico Acuerdo Entre Rappi y Trabajadores de Plataformas Digitales’ <
https://petro.presidencia.gov.co/prensa/Paginas/Ministerio-de-Trabajo-propicia-historico-acuerdo-entre-Rappi-y-trabajadores-de-plataformas-digitales-240221.aspx >. - 62Pulignano V and others, ‘Does It Pay to Work? Unpaid Labour in the Platform Economy’ <
https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4013358 > accessed 3 June 2024. - 63Rainone S and Aloisi A,
‘The EU Platform Work Directive What’s New, What’s Missing, What’s next?’ (ETUI 2024) <https://www.etui.org/publications/eu-platform-work-directive >. - 64Rainone S and Hießl C, ‘Judicial Creativity in the Platform Economy: Normative Insights for Broadening the Scope of Labour Law’ <
https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=4971882 > accessed 21 September 2025. - 65Refslund B and Arnholtz J, ‘Power Resource Theory Revisited: The Perils and Promises for Understanding Contemporary Labour Politics’ (2022) 43 Economic and Industrial Democracy 1958. DOI: 10.1177/0143831X211053379
- 66Sena Orsini A and Paes Leme A, ‘Litigancia Manipulativa Da Jurisprudencia e Plataformas Digitais de Transporte: Levantando o Véu Do Procedimiento Conciliatório Estratégico’ [2021] Escola Judicial <
https://juslaboris.tst.jus.br/bitstream/handle/20.500.12178/188571/2021_rev_trt05_v0010_n0013_versao02.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y >. - 67Servais J-M, ‘Universal Labor Standards and National Cultures’ (2005) 26 Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal <
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=833266 > accessed 7 October 2024. - 68Stuart M and others, ‘Global Labour Unrest on Platforms. The Case of Food Delivery Workers’ (2020).
- 69The App-Based Drivers Union of Bangladesh, ‘Thousands of Drivers Unionizing Uber in Bangladesh’ (Tech Workers Coalition, 2022) <
https://techworkerscoalition.org/blog/2022/04/12/issue-6/ >. - 70Trappmann V and Stuart M, ‘Mapping Protest in Platform Work: Introducing the New Leeds Index of Platform Worker Protest’ <
https://digit-research.org/blog_article/mapping-protest-in-platform-work-introducing-the-new-leeds-index-of-platform-worker-protest/ >. - 71‘UGT y Uber Eats Firman Un Memorando Para Mejorar Las Condiciones de Los Trabajadores de Plataformas Digitales’ Europa Press (17 October 2024) <
https://www.europapress.es/economia/laboral-00346/noticia-ugt-uber-eats-firman-memorando-mejorar-condiciones-trabajadores-plataformas-digitales-20241017081901.html >. - 72‘UK: Uber and International Transport Workers Federation (ITF) Signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)’ Industrial Relations and Labour Law (February 2022) <
https://industrialrelationsnews.ioe-emp.org/news/article/uk-uber-and-international-transport-workers-federation-itf-signed-a-memorandum-of-understanding-mou-1 >. - 73United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), ‘United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Statistics’ <
https://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Classifications.html > accessed 21 May 2024. - 74University of Leeds, Leeds Index of Platform Labour Protest (2023) <
https://leeds-index.co.uk/ >. - 75Ustek-Spilda F, Brittain L and Graham M, ‘The Unmagical World of AI: Workers at the Bottom of the AI Supply Chain’ (Frederich Ebert Stiftung) <
https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-unmagical-world-of-ai-workers-at-the-bottom-of-the-ai-supply-/ >. - 76World Justice Project, ‘Rule of Law Index 2023’ <
https://worldjusticeproject.org/news/wjp-rule-law-index-2023-global-press-release >. - 77Arrêt n° 20–81775 (Cour de Cassation).
- 78Arrêt n°1737 (Cour de Cassation).
- 79Atapattu Arachchige v Rasier New Zealand Limited & Uber BV (Employment Court of New Zealand).
- 80Carlos Herrera v Uber BV y Uber Technologies Uruguay SA (y Juzgado Letrado del Trabajo de la Capital de 9o Turno).
- 81Dynamex Operations West, Inc v Superior Court of Los Angeles (Supreme Court).
- 82ECLI:NL:RBAMS:2018:5183 (Rechtbank).
- 83FNV v Deliveroo (ECLI:NL:HR:2023:443) [2023] HOGE RAAD DER NEDERLANDEN ECLI:NL:HR:2023:443.
- 84FNV v Uber BV [2021] Rechtbank Amsterdam ECLI:NL:RBAMS:2021:5029.
- 85Joshua Klooger v Foodora Australia Pty Ltd (Fair Work Commission).
- 86Mål nr A 154/21 (Arbetsdomstolen).
- 87McGillis v Dept of Economic Opportunity [2017] Third district Court of Appeal State of Florida No. 3D15–2758.
- 88Mr Michail Kaseris v Rasier Pacific VOF [2017] Fair Work Commission [2017] FWC 6610.
- 89Opsan A v Glovo Kazakhstan & Ors (Судебная коллегия по административным делам Верховного Суда Республики Казахстан в составе).
- 90RIT O-1833–2015 (Segundo Juzgado de Letras del Trabajo de Santiago).
- 91RO-0010313-7420205030013 (Vara do Trabalho de Minas Gerais).
- 92RO-1000507-6220205020033 [2021] 18a Turma Tribunal Regional do Trabalho de São Paulo 1000507-62.2020.5.02.0033.
- 93RR-100353-0220175010066 (3a Turma do Tribunal Superior do Trabalho).
- 94Sentenza n 21/2805, 15 october 2021 (Tribunale di Milano).
- 95SJSO 3042/2018- ECLI:ES:JSO:2018:3042 (Juzgado 39 de lo Social de Madrid).
- 96T-109/21 [2021] Corte Constitucional T-7.961.395.
- 97T-534/23 (Corte Constitucional).
- 98Trabajador vs TMP, SA (Razón Comercial ASAP TMP) (Tribunal Superior de Trabajo Primer Distrito Judicial).
- 99Tribunale di Torino, 15 november 2022 [2022] Trinunale di Torino 2767/2021.
- 100TUR1/985(2016) (Central Arbitration Committe).
- 101Uber South Africa Technology Services Ltd v National Union of Public Service and Allied Workers (Commission of Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration).
- 102INICIATIVA CON PROYECTO DE DECRETO POR EL QUE SE ADICIONA UN CAPÍTULO XII TER DENOMINADO “TRABAJO EN PLATAFORMAS DIGITALES DE TRANSPORTE Y REPARTO” 2023.
- 103“Por medio de la cual se regula el servicio público de transporte individual en vehículo particular intermediado por plataformas digitales” 2021.
- 104Proyecto de Ley que refiere a la tutela del trabajo desarrollado mediante plataformas digitales que organizan los servicios de entrega de bienes o transporte urbano y oneroso de pasajeros. 2022.
- 105Amendment to Finnish Employment Contracts Act.
- 106Bill Text – AB-5 Worker status: employees and independent contractors.
- 107Code on social security, No. 36 of 2020.
- 108Conversione in legge, con modificazioni, del decreto-legge 3 settembre 2019, n. 101, recante disposizioni urgenti per la tutela del lavoro e per la risoluzione di crisi aziendali. (19G00137).
- 109Digital Platform Delivery Wages Order 2022.
- 110Lei n.° 45/2018. DOI: 10.2528/PIERL17110208
- 111Lei no. 13/2023 2023. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1065638
- 112Ley 12/2021 2021 119341.
- 113Ley 21431 2022.
- 114LOI n° 2016-1088 du 8 août 2016 relative au travail, à la modernisation du dialogue social et à la sécurisation des parcours professionnels (1) 2016 (2016-1088).
- 115Loi portant des dispositions diverses relatives au travail (1) 2022.
- 116Proyecto de Reforma Laboral ‘Por medio de la cual se adopta una reforma laboral para el Trabajo digno y decente en Colombia y se modifican parcialmente el Código Sustantivo del trabajo, ley 50 de 1990, la ley 789 de 2002 y otras normas laborales’ 2023.
- 117ΝΟΜΟΣ ΥΠ’ ΑΡΙΘΜ. 4808 (Law no. 4808/2021) 2021.
- 118Zakon o radu 2024.
- 1195 AZR 334/21 (Bundesarbeitsgericht).
- 1208 Sa 146/19 (Landesarbeitsgericht).
- 1219 AZR 102/20 (Bundesarbeitsgericht).
- 12253/2019 (Juzgado de lo Social No 33 de Madrid).
- 123637/2021 (Primer Tribunal Laboral de la Región Judicial de Toluca con residencia en Xonacatlán).
- 1242202550/2015 (London Employment Tribunal (ET)).
- 12511001418902120210087800 (Juzgado Veintiuno Civil Municipal de Pequenas Causas y Competencia Múltiple de Bogotá).