References
- Ahmed, A. 2017. ‘They Will Have To Answer to Us.’ The New York Times Magazine, 29 November.
- Albaladejo, A. 2016.
How Violence Affects Women in El Salvador . Just Americas: A Blog by LAWG. Latin America Working Group. Available at:http://www.lawg.org/action-center/lawg-blog/69-general/1590-how-violence-affects-women-in-el-salvador [Last accessed 23 February 2017]. - Associated Press. 2015. El Salvador’s Supreme Court Declares Gangs Terrorist Groups. VOA News, 24 August.
- Associated Press. 2017. A Day Without Murder: No One is Killed in El Salvador for First Time in Two Years. The Guardian, 12 January.
- Avelar, B. 2016. The Bus Route That Institutionalized Extortion in El Salvador. InSight Crime, 13 December.
- BBC News. 2016. El Salvador Unveils New Military Force to Fight Gangs. BBC News, 21 April.
- Blin, A. 2011. Armed Groups and Intra-State Conflicts: The Dawn of a New Era? International Review of the Red Cross, 93(882). DOI: 10.1017/S1816383112000045
- Bruneau, TC. 2005. The Maras and National Security in Central America. Strategic Insights, 4(5).
- Caprioli, M. 2000. Gendered Conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 37(1): 51–68. DOI: 10.1177/0022343300037001003
- Caprioli, M and Boyer, M. 2001. Gender, Violence, and International Crisis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45(4): 503–518. DOI: 10.1177/0022002701045004005
- Cawley, M. 2014. Is Central America’s Gang Violence a Humanitarian Crisis? InSight Crime, 18 July.
- Chang, P, Alam, M, Warren, R, Bhatia, R and Turkington, R. 2015. Women Leading Peace: A Close Examination of Women’s Political Participation in Peace Processes in Northern Ireland, Guatemala, Kenya, and the Philippines. Washington, DC: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security.
- Chinkin, C and Kaldor, M. 2017. International Law and New Wars. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/9781316759868
- Clavel, T. 2016. Report Says El Salvador Gangs Have Created a Parallel State. InSight Crime, 22 December.
- Cosgrove, S. 2010.
El Salvador . Leadership From the Margins: Women and Civil Society Organizations in Argentina, Chile, and El Salvador. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. - DeCesare, D. 2007. The Children of War: Street Gangs in El Salvador. North American Congress on Latin America, 25 September.
- Ellis, RE. 2015. The Gang Challenge in El Salvador: Worse Than You Thought. War on the Rocks, 16 December.
- Farah, D and Babineau, K. 2017. The Evolution of MS 13 in El Salvador and Honduras. Prism, 7(1): 59–73.
- Farah, D and Lum, P. 2013. Central American Gangs and Transnational Criminal Consultants: The Changing Relationships in a Time of Turmoil. International Assessment and Strategy Center.
- Farber, J. 2016.
War in Peace: Exploring the Roots of El Salvador’s Gang Violence . Council on Hemispheric Affairs. - Fearon, J and Laitin, D. 2003. Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War. American Political Science Review, 97(1): 75–90. DOI: 10.1017/S0003055403000534
- Fleury, A. 2016. Fleeing to Mexico for Safety: The Perilous Journey for Migrant Women. United Nations University, 4 May.
- Frühling, P. 2008. Maras and Youth Gangs, Community and Police in Central America. Stockholm: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.
- Gammage, S. 2007.
El Salvador: Despite End to Civil War, Emigration Continues . Migration Policy Institute. - Garsd, J. 2015. How El Salvador Fell Into a Web of Gang Violence. National Public Radio, 5 October.
- Hagen, J. 2016. Queering Women, Peace and Security. International Affairs, 92(2): 313–332. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.12551
- Hudson, VM, Balliff-Spanvill, B, Caprioli, M and Emmett, C. 2012. Sex and World Peace. New York: Columbia University Press.
- ICRC. 2008. How is the Term ‘Armed Conflict’ Defined in International Humanitarian Law? ICRC opinion paper.
- Jütersonke, O, Muggah, R and Rodgers, D. 2009. Gangs, Urban Violence, and Security Interventions in Central America. Security Dialogue, 40(4–5): 373–397. DOI: 10.1177/0967010609343298
- Kaldor, M. 1998. New and Old Wars. Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Kaldor, M. 2013. In Defence of New Wars. Stability, 2(1): 1–16. DOI: 10.5334/sta.at
- Kalyvas, S. 2011. ‘New’ and ‘Old’ Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction? World Politics, 54(1): 99–118. DOI: 10.1353/wp.2001.0022
- Kalyvas, S and Balcells, L. 2010. International System and Technologies of Rebellion: How the End of the Cold War Shaped Internal Conflict. American Political Science Review, 104(3): 415–429. DOI: 10.1017/S0003055410000286
- Kirby, P and Shepherd, L. 2016. Reintroducing Women, Peace and Security. International Affairs, 92(2): 249–254. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.12550
- Kirby, P and Shepherd, L. 2016. The Futures Past of the Women, Peace and Security Agenda. International Affairs, 92(1): 373–392. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2346.12549
- Lakhani, N. 2016. From civil war to gang war: new violence drives Salvadorans to makeshift camp. The Guardian, 30 September.
- Lohmuller, M. 2015. El Salvador Now Using Anti-Terrorism Law to Tackle Gangs. InSight Crime, 12 August.
- Lurge, D. 2003.
Liberating Yet Limiting: The Paradox of Female Gang Membership . In: Kontos, L, Brotherton, B and Barrios, L (eds.), Gangs and Society: Alternative Perspectives. New York: Columbia University Press. - Manwaring, M. 2007. A Contemporary Challenge to State Sovereignty: Gangs and Other Illicit Transnational Criminal Organizations in Central America, El Salvador, Mexico, Jamaica, and Brazil. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College.
- Martínez, O, Lemus, E, Martínez, C and Sontag, D. 2016. Killers on a Shoestring: Inside the Gangs of El Salvador. The New York Times, 20 November.
- Mc Evoy, C and Hideg, G. 2017.
Global Violent Deaths 2017: Time to Decide . Small Arms Survey. Geneva: Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. - Negroponte, DV. 2009. The Merida Initiative and Central America: The Challenges of Containing Public Insecurity and Criminal Violence. Washington, DC: Brookings.
- Newman, E. 2004. The ‘New Wars’ Debate: A Historical Perspective is Needed. Security Dialogue, 35(2): 173–189. DOI: 10.1177/0967010604044975
- O’Reilly, M. 2015. Why Women? Inclusive Security and Peaceful Societies. Washington, DC: Inclusive Security.
- Paffenholz, T and Spurk, C. 2006. Civil Society, Civic Engagement and Peacebuilding. Social Development Papers: Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction, 36.
- Pratt, N. 2013. Reconceptualizing Gender, Reinscribing Racial-Sexual Boundaries in International Security: The Case of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on ‘Women, Peace and Security.’ International Studies Quarterly, 57(4): 772–783. DOI: 10.1111/isqu.12032
- Pratt, N and Richter-Devroe, S. 2011. Critically Examining UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 13(4): 489–503. DOI: 10.1080/14616742.2011.611658
- Regan, PM and Paskeviciute, A. 2003. Women’s Access to Politics and Peaceful States. Journal of Peace Research, 40(3): 287–302. DOI: 10.1177/0022343303040003003
- Rodgers, D and Muggah, R. 2009. Gangs as Non-State Armed Groups: The Central American Case. Contemporary Security Policy, 30(2): 301–317. DOI: 10.1080/13523260903059948
- Santacruz Giralt, M and Ranum, E. 2010. Seconds in the Air: Women Gang-Members and their Prisons. San Salvador: University Institute of Public Opinion, Central America University.
- Skåre, M. 2012. The role of women’s civil society organizations in the prevention and resolution of armed conflicts and peace building. Prepared statement in the open debate in the Security Council on women, peace and security, 30 November 2012. Available at:
https://www.nato.int/cps/ic/natohq/opinions_92693.htm?selectedLocale=en [Last accessed 17 October 2018]. - Toledo, E. 2017. El Salvador’s Army Still Struggles with a Gang Problem after Expelling 615. Panam Post, 7 August.
- True, J. 2013. Women, Peace and Security in Post-Conflict and Peacebuilding Contexts. Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre Policy Brief.
- Tryggestad, T. 2009. Trick or Treat? The UN and Implementation of Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations, 15(4): 539–557.
- Umaña, I, de León, B and Táger, A. 2014. El Salvador – Negotiating with Gangs. Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, 25: 95–99.
- Umaña, I and Rikkers, J. 2012. Violent Women and Violence Against Women: Gender Relations in the Maras and Other Street Gangs of Central America’s Northern Triangle. Interpeace.
- UNHCR. 2015. Women on the Run: First-Hand Accounts of Refugees Fleeing El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. UNHCR.
- United States Commission on Civil Rights. 2015. Statutory Enforcement Report: The State of Civil Rights at Immigration Detention Facilities.
- Wilber, DQ. 2010. MS-13 Gang Out to ‘Kill, Rape and Control’: FBI Agent. Washington Post, 11 January.
- Wolf, S. 2012. Mara Salvatrucha: The Most Dangerous Street Gang in the Americas? Latin American Politics and Society, 54(1): 65–99.
- World Bank. 2016.
Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people): UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s International Homicide Statistics database . The World Bank.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.641 | Journal eISSN: 2165-2627
Language: English
Page range: 18 - 18
Submitted on: Mar 30, 2018
Accepted on: Sep 21, 2018
Published on: Nov 30, 2018
Published by: Department of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
© 2018 Anna Applebaum, Briana Mawby, published by Department of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
