Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
The Crime-Conflict Nexus and the Civil War in Syria Cover
Open Access
|Sep 2017

References

  1. Al-Abdeh M Rebels, Inc Foreign Policy 2013 November 21 Available at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/11/21/rebels-inc/ [Last accessed 2 January 2017]
  2. Al-Hemiary N J Al-Diwan J K Hasson A L Rawson R A Drug and alcohol use in Iraq: findings of the inaugural Iraqi Community Epidemiological Workgroup Substance Use & Misuse 2014 49 13 1759 1763 10.3109/10826084.2014.913633
  3. Al Jazeera Syria’s Civil War Explained 2016 December 14 Available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/05/syria-civil-war-explained-160505084119966.html [Last accessed 28 January 2017]
  4. Almohamad H Dittmann A Oil in Syria between Terrorism and Dictatorship Social Sciences 2016 5 2 10.3390/socsci5020020
  5. Andreas P Criminalized legacies of war: The clandestine political economy of the Western Balkans Problems of Post-Communism 2004 51 3 3 9
  6. Baker A Syria’s breaking bad: Are amphetamines funding the war? Time Magazine 2013 October 28 Available at: http://world.time.com/2013/10/28/syrias-breaking-bad-are-amphetamines-funding-the-war/ [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  7. Ballentine K The political economy of armed conflict: Beyond greed and grievance 2003 Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers
  8. BBC News Syria: The story of the conflict 2016 March 11 Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26116868 [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  9. Berdal M Beyond greed and grievance–and not too soon… Review of International Studies 2005 31 04 687 698 10.1017/S0260210505006698
  10. Bergeron J Transnational Organised Crime and International Security: A Primer The RUSI Journal 2013 158 2 6 9 10.1080/03071847.2013.787728
  11. Bosetti L Cockayne J de Boer J Crime-Proofing Conflict Prevention, Management, and Peacebuilding: A Review of Emerging Good Practice Occasional Paper 2016 Tokyo United Nations University Centre for Policy Research August 6
  12. Briscoe I A Violent Compound: Competition, Crime, and Modern Conflict NOREF Report 2015 Oslo NOREF November
  13. Casana J Satellite Imagery-based analysis of archaeological looting in Syria Near Eastern Archaeology 2015 78 3 142 152 10.5615/neareastarch.78.3.0142
  14. Chossudovsky M Kosovo “freedom fighters” financed by organized crime Peace Research 1999 31 2 29 42
  15. Clarke C P Drugs & Thugs: Funding Terrorism through Narcotics Trafficking Journal of Strategic Security 2016 9 3 1 15 10.5038/1944-0472.9.3.1536
  16. Cockayne J Pfister D R Peace operations and organised crime GCSP Geneva Papers 2008 Geneva Geneva Centre for Security Policy 2
  17. Collier P Hoeffler A Greed and grievance in civil war Oxford Economic Papers 2004 56 4 563 595 10.1093/oep/gpf064
  18. Cordesman A H Russia in Syria: Hybrid political warfare 2015 Washington DC Center for Strategic and International Studies
  19. Cornell S E The interaction of narcotics and conflict Journal of Peace Research 2005 42 6 751 760 10.1177/0022343305057895
  20. Cornell S Jonsson M Conflict, Crime, and the State in Postcommunist Eurasia 2014 Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press 10.9783/9780812208986
  21. Crowcroft O Syria Conflict: Who are the major players fighting in the bloody Syrian civil war? International Business Times 2015 October 1 Available at: http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/syria-conflict-who-are-major-players-bloody-complex-civil-war-1522027 [Last accessed 21 January 2017]
  22. De Boer J Bosetti L The Crime-Conflict “Nexus”: State of the Evidence Occasional Paper 2015 Tokyo United Nations University Centre for Policy Research 5
  23. De Juan A Bank A The Ba ‘athist blackout? Selective goods provision and political violence in the Syrian civil war Journal of Peace Research 2015 52 1 91 104 10.1177/0022343314559437
  24. Dishman C The leaderless nexus: When crime and terror converge Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 2005 28 3 237 252 10.1080/10576100590928124
  25. Duffield M R Global governance and the new wars: the merging of development and security 2001 London Zed books
  26. Erlich R Inside Syria: the backstory of their civil war and the world can expect 2014 New York Prometheus Books
  27. Felbab-Brown V The Coca Connection: Conflict and Drugs in Colombia and Peru Journal of Conflict Studies 2005 25 2 104 128 Available at: https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/JCS/article/view/489/823 [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  28. Felbab-Brown V Williams P Felbab-Brown V Fighting the nexus of organised crime and violent conflict while enhancing human security Drug trafficking, violence, and instability 2012 Army War College: Strategic Studies Institute 1 26 Available at: www.StrategicStudiesInstitute.army.mil [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  29. Fielding-Smith A Profiteers become another obstacle to peace in Syria Financial Times 2013 December 1 Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/f4d8e1ba-5853-11e3-9da6-00144feabdc0 [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  30. Flanigan S T Abdel-Samad M Hezbollah’s Social Jihad: Nonprofits as resistance organizations Middle East Policy 2009 16 2 122 137 10.1111/j.1475-4967.2009.00396.x
  31. Forest J J Global trends in kidnapping by terrorist groups Global Change, Peace & Security 2012 24 3 311 330 10.1080/14781158.2012.714766
  32. Fromson J Simon S ISIS: the dubious paradise of apocalypse now Survival 2015 57 3 7 56 10.1080/00396338.2015.1046222
  33. Goodhand J Corrupting or consolidating the peace? The drugs economy and post-conflict peacebuilding in Afghanistan International Peacekeeping 2008 15 3 405 423 10.1080/13533310802058984
  34. Graham-Harrison E Millions displaced and 500,000 dead – Will new peace talks end Syria’s agony? The Observer 2017 January 21 Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/21/peace-talks-syria-russia-astana-kazakhstan [Last accessed 30 January 2017]
  35. Green P Ward T The transformation of violence in Iraq British Journal of Criminology 2009 49 5 609 627 10.1093/bjc/azp022
  36. Grynkewich A G Welfare as warfare: How violent non-state groups use social services to attack the state Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 2008 31 350 370 10.1080/10576100801931321
  37. Hallaj O A The balance-sheet of conflict: criminal revenues and warlords in Syria 2015 Oslo Norwegian Peacebuilding Research Centre May
  38. Hansen W The organized crime-peace operations nexus Prism: a Journal of the Center for Complex Operations 2014 5 1 63 79
  39. Harb M Clarke G Faith-based organizations as effective development partners? Hezbollah and post-war reconstruction in Lebanon Development, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations 2008 Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan UK 214 239 10.1057/9780230371262_10
  40. Henley J Captagon: The amphetamine fuelling Syria’s civil war The Guardian 2014 January 13 Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2014/jan/13/captagon-amphetamine-syria-war-middle-east [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  41. Herbert M Partisans, profiteers, and criminals: Syria’s illicit economy Fletcher F. World Affairs 2014 38 1 69 86
  42. Herbst J Economic incentives, natural resources and conflict in Africa Journal of African Economies 2000 9 3 270 294 10.1093/jae/9.3.270
  43. Holley P The tiny pill fuelling Syria’s war and turning fighters into super-human soldiers The Washington Post 2015 November 19 Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/11/19/the-tiny-pill-fueling-syrias-war-and-turning-fighters-into-super-human-soldiers/?utm_term=.a6533c63c4df [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  44. Hutchinson S O’Malley P A crime–terror nexus? Thinking on some of the links between terrorism and criminality Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 2007 30 12 1095 1107 10.1080/10576100701670870
  45. James M The other civil society: Organised crime in fragile and failing states Defence Studies 2012 12 2 218 256 10.1080/14702436.2012.699723
  46. Jenzen-Jones N R Following the Headstamp Trail: An Assessment of small-calibre Ammunition documented in Syria 2014 Geneva Small Arms Survey
  47. Jesperson S Development engagement with organised crime: a necessary shift or further securitisation? Conflict, Security & Development 2015 15 1 23 50 10.1080/14678802.2014.978182
  48. Kaldor M Old and new wars: Organized violence in a global era 1999 Cambridge Polity
  49. Kalin S Insight – War turns Syria into major amphetamines producer, consumer Reuters 2014 January 12 Available at: http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-crisis-drugs-insight-idUKBREA0B04Y20140112 [Last accessed 14 July 2017]
  50. Kaplan R D O’Meara P Krain M The coming anarchy Globalization and the challenges of a new century: A reader 1994 Bloomington Indiana University Press 34 60
  51. Keatinge T The importance of financing in enabling and sustaining the conflict in Syria (and beyond) Perspectives on Terrorism 2014 8 4 53 61
  52. Kemp W A The business of ethnic conflict Security Dialogue 2004 35 1 43 59 10.1177/0967010604042535
  53. Khalaf R Poirson T Beyond arms and beards: Local governance of ISIS in syria Caliphate and Islamic Global Politics 2015 E-International Relations Publishing 57 67
  54. Kravitz M Nichols W A bitter pill to swallow: Connections between captagon, Syria, and the Gulf Journal of International Affairs 2016 69 2 31 42 Available online: https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/bitter-pill-swallow-connections-captagon-syria-gulf [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  55. Lacher W Organized crime and conflict in the Sahel-Sahara region 2012 Washington DC Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
  56. Lederer E M UN: ISIS got up to $45 m in ransoms Daily Star 2014 November 25 Available at: http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2014/Nov-25/278829-un-isis-got-up-to-45m-in-ransoms.ashx [Last accessed 30 January 2016]
  57. Lister C R The Islamic State: A brief introduction 2015a Washington DC Brookings Institution Press
  58. Lister C Assessing Syria’s jihad Survival 2015b 56 6 87 112 10.1080/00396338.2014.985439
  59. Mac Ginty R Looting in the context of violent conflict: A conceptualisation and typology Third World Quarterly 2004 25 5 857 870 10.1080/0143659042000231965
  60. Makarenko T The crime-terror continuum: Tracing the interplay between transnational organised crime and terrorism Global Crime 2004 6 1 129 145 10.1080/1744057042000297025
  61. Martínez J C Eng B Struggling to perform the state: The politics of bread in the Syrian civil war International Political Sociology 2017 10.1093/ips/olw026
  62. McCants W The ISIS apocalypse: The history, strategy, and doomsday vision of the Islamic State 2015 Basingstoke Macmillan
  63. McMullin J Organised criminal groups and conflict: the nature and consequences of interdependence Civil Wars 2009 11 1 75 102 10.1080/13698240802407066
  64. Münkler H The new wars 2005 Cambridge Polity
  65. Nasser R Mehchy Z Abu Ismail K Socioeconomic roots and impact of the Syrian crisis Policy Report 2013 Syrian Center for Policy Research January 30 Available at: http://scpr-syria.org/publications/policy-reports/socioeconomic-roots-and-impact-of-the-syrian-crisis-2013/ [Last accessed 13 June 2017]
  66. Oehme C G Terrorists, insurgents, and criminals—growing nexus? Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 2008 31 1 80 93 10.1080/10576100701767130
  67. Ohl D Albrecht H Koehler K For Money or liberty? The political economy of military desertion and rebel recruitment in the Syrian civil war 2015 Beirut Carnegie Middle East Center Available at: http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/11/24/for-money-or-liberty-political-economy-of-military-desertion-and-rebel-recruitment-in-syrian-civil-war-pub-61714 [Last accessed 3 July 2016]
  68. Pugh M C Cooper N Goodhand J War economies in a regional context: challenges of transformation 2004 Boulder Lynne Rienner Publishers
  69. Robson S Revealed: How ISIS got most of their weapons from the countries now bombing Syria – including Britain The Mirror 2015 December 8 Available at: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/revealed-how-isis-most-weapons-6973238 [Last accessed 25 January 2017]
  70. Sanderson T M Transnational terror and organized crime: blurring the lines SAIS Review of International Affairs 2004 24 1 49 61 10.1353/sais.2004.0020
  71. Shelley L I Melzer S A The nexus of organized crime and terrorism: Two case studies in cigarette smuggling International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 2008 32 1 43 63 10.1080/01924036.2008.9678777
  72. Shelley L I Picarelli J T Methods and motives: Exploring links between transnational organized crime and international terrorism Trends in Organized Crime 2005 9 2 52 67 10.1007/s12117-005-1024-x
  73. Sly L Islam’s Dysfunctional State: In Isis-controlled Syria and Iraq Everyday Life is Falling Apart The Independent 2014 December 26 Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/islams-dysfunctional-state-in-isis-controlled-syria-and-iraq-everyday-life-is-falling-apart-9945774.html [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  74. Sorenson D S Syria in ruins: The dynamics of the Syrian civil war 2016 Santa Barbara, CA Praeger
  75. Staniland P States, insurgents and wartime political orders Perspectives on Politics 2012 10 2 243 264 10.1017/S1537592712000655
  76. Starr S A fight for the spoils: The future role of Syria’s armed groups CTC Sentinel 2012 5 8 1 3 Available at: https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/a-fight-for-the-spoils-the-future-role-of-syrias-armed-groups [Last accessed 12 June 2017]
  77. Steenkamp C Violence and post-war reconstruction: Managing insecurity in the aftermath of war 2009 London I B Tauris
  78. Steenkamp C Violent societies: Networks of violence in war and peace 2014 Basingstoke Palgrave 10.1057/9781137290656
  79. Taylor M B Law, guns and money: Regulating war economies in Syria and beyond 2015 Oslo Norwegian Peacebuilding Research Centre November
  80. The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organised Crime Arms trafficking in Syria: A case of the biter getting bitten 2013 Geneva The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organised Crime August Available at: http://globalinitiative.net/syria-arms/ [Last accessed 11 July 2017]
  81. The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organised Crime The nexus of conflict and illicit drug trafficking Syria and the wider region 2016 Geneva The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organised Crime November Available at: http://globalinitiative.net/publication-the-nexus-of-conflict-and-illicit-drug-trafficking-syria-and-the-wider-region/ [Last accessed at 4 January 2017]
  82. The Guardian Syrian troops looting ancient city of Palmyra, says archaeologist 2016 June 1 Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/01/syrian-troops-looting-ancient-city-palmyra-says-archaeologist [Last accessed 12 January 2017]
  83. UNESCO Looting of museums and warehouses in Syria 2013 October Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/safeguarding-syrian-cultural-heritage/situation-in-syria/movable-heritage/museums/ [Last accessed 3 December 2014]
  84. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Syria Emergency 2016 Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/uk/syria-emergency.html [Last accessed 30 January 2017]
  85. Usman T Khan M M Drug trafficking from Afghanistan to Pakistan and its implications Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 2013 50 2 25 43
  86. Van Creveld M The transformation of war 1991 New York Free Press
  87. Weiss M Hassan H ISIS: Inside the army of terror 2016 2nd edition New York Regan Arts
  88. Williams P Criminals, militias, and insurgents: organized crime in Iraq 2009 US Army War College: Strategic Studies Institute 10.21236/ADA504847
  89. Williams P Williams P Felbab-Brown V Insurgencies and Organised Crime Drug trafficking, violence, and instability 2012 Army War College: Strategic Studies Institute 27 72 10.21236/ADA560718 Available at: www.StrategicStudiesInstitute.army.mil [Last accessed 2 February 2017]
  90. Yazigi J Syria’s war economy Policy Brief 2014 London European Council on Foreign Relations
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/sta.522 | Journal eISSN: 2165-2627
Language: English
Page range: 11 - 11
Submitted on: Feb 3, 2017
Accepted on: Jun 18, 2017
Published on: Sep 28, 2017
Published by: Department of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services

© 2017 Christina Steenkamp, published by Department of Peace Studies and International Development, University of Bradford
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.