1 Introduction
To reach the population and close local information gaps, Swiss municipalities have increasingly invested in communication (Burger et al. 2023). Beyond classic instruments such as the official gazette, social media has emerged as an additional and important communication channel (Burger et al. 2023; Mattmann & Gromann 2025). Social media reaches residents who are less likely to follow more traditional communication channels (Mossberger, Wu & Crawford 2013). Although there is a growing body of research on national governmental social media communication, less attention has been paid to local governments’ social media activities (Larsson & Skogerbø 2018). Addressing this gap (Luna et al. 2024; Silva et al. 2019) is crucial in a country like Switzerland, where local institutions have significant powers and influence in public affairs. Moreover, while existing literature on public sector digital transformation typically emphasizes structural and technological determinants such as organizational resources, demographic composition, and financial capacity, the role of decision-makers’ characteristics remains underexplored. Conventional explanatory models, such as the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework, effectively identify technological, organizational and environmental factors as drivers for technology adoption but often overlook the role of decision-makers’ individual dispositions (Neumann, Guirguis & Steiner 2024) in this process. This study addresses this limitation by complementing the TOE framework with Upper Echelons Theory, thereby examining both structural determinants (municipal size, demographics, fiscal capacity) and individual leadership factors (council members’ personal social media use) as drivers of adoption.
We hypothesize that in the Swiss militia system, where politicians serve as intermediary actors between the private and public sphere (Derungs, Müller & Wellinger 2021; Freitag, Bundi & Flick Witzig 2019), the personal social media use of municipal council members significantly shapes the digital orientation of their administration. Building on this premise, the study aims to answer the following research question:
RQ: Which organizational, environmental, and individual factors – including council members’ personal social media use – contribute to the adoption of social media by Swiss municipalities?
This approach tests the generalizability of predictors identified in international research while incorporating context-specific variables unique to Switzerland’s militia system. The article is organized as follows: Section two reviews the literature and develops hypotheses by applying the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework (Tornatzky & Fleischer 1990) to identify structural and environmental predictors, while Upper Echelons Theory (Hambrick & Mason 1984) guides the analysis of executive characteristics. Section three presents the data and methods. Section four details the findings and is followed by a discussion of the implications for research and practice.
2 Literature Review and Research Question
2.1 Social media as communication instrument
The past decade has witnessed a significant rise in the adoption of social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, X, and LinkedIn) by public entities in Western nations as a means of engaging with their population (Fissi, Gori & Romolini 2022; Graham 2014; Picazo-Vela, Gutiérrez-Martínez & Luna-Reyes 2012).
Social media has evolved from one-way information dissemination to fostering interactive dialogues and network-based exchanges (Carlisle & Patton 2013; Song & Lee 2015). This interactivity enables real-time feedback and ongoing public discourse (Vissers & Stolle 2014), while enhancing transparency as citizens actively shape narratives (Bonsón, Royo & Ratkai 2017; Pasquier & Villeneuve 2007).
The functions of social media in the public sector can be structured into several areas. First, it enhances transparency by disseminating content that is often not readily available through traditional channels, such as government websites or offline media (Arshad & Khurram 2020; Bonsón et al. 2012). Second, it offers a novel means to foster civic engagement by incorporating citizens’ information and opinions into the policymaking process and promoting online political participation (Criado, Sandoval-Almazan & Gil-Garcia 2013; Lin & Kant 2021; Sobaci 2016). Ultimately, effective social media use can lead to greater legitimization of political decisions and enhanced institutional credibility (Picazo-Vela, Gutiérrez-Martínez, & Luna-Reyes, 2012).
The use of social media varies by administrative level due to differing institutional logics (Kuhlmann & Wollmann 2019). While national governments focus on broad, one-to-many communication strategies (Drefs 2019), local governments operate at the citizen-state interface, centered on direct service delivery and the management of daily life (Cegarra Navarro et al. 2012; David et al. 2023). Their logic is one of proximity and service, demanding more interactive and responsive communication (Wukich 2022).
Social media’s low-threshold accessibility enables residents not only to receive information but also to interact directly with the authorities (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). This is particularly significant at the local level because municipal issues are often tangible, fostering practical discussions rather than abstract political considerations (Stone & Can 2021).
2.2 Social media adoption in municipalities
In studying social media in public administrations, one must distinguish between “adoption” and “use”. Social media adoption is understood as the process-oriented decision by which a governmental organization integrates these platforms as a new technological and operational tool (Criado & Villodre 2022; Patergiannaki & Pollalis 2023). This process is influenced by institutional and organizational factors (Mergel 2016). Scholars have proposed stage models, which break down the adoption process into distinct, sequential phases – from experimentation to institutionalization (Mergel & Bretschneider 2013) or maturity levels like “active adoption” (Mabillard et al. 2024). The term “social media use” is quite different, as it refers to the ongoing use after adoption has occurred (Malodia et al. 2021). While these approaches help describe the stage an organization is in in terms of adoption and use of social media, they fall short of explaining why it is at that particular stage (Duane & O’Reilly 2016). They do not explain the underlying drivers of either adoption or use. This study addresses this gap by focusing on the underlying factors that drive social media adoption in Swiss municipalities.
Although the adoption of social media is readily observable, less is known about the underlying determinants that influence this process (Mergel 2016). Some municipalities embrace social media, while others adopt a more cautious stance, and still others refrain from using it altogether. The reasons behind these varying approaches among municipalities remain unclear and have received little attention in the literature (Bischoff & Wimberger 2023).
2.3 The Swiss context: A unique case for studying social media adoption
Switzerland serves as an insightful case study for examining the drivers of municipal social media adoption due to its unique political and social structure. First, Swiss municipalities possess extensive local autonomy, including fiscal sovereignty and self-administration (Ladner & Keuffer 2021). This pronounced federalism – exceptional in comparison to other countries (Ladner et al. 2016) – creates real competition for residents and businesses through differentiated tax rates and public service quality (Fiechter 2010). This underscores the need for institutional communication. Second, through the tradition of direct democracy, the citizenry can directly influence and shape local governance and the provision of public services through instruments such as municipal assemblies, local initiatives, and referendums (Fetz 2020; Flick Witzig & Vatter 2023; Ladner & Haus 2021). The citizenry’s capacity for direct influence requires a high degree of communication and exchange between the municipality and its residents. Third, the Swiss political militia system, which is largely based on the contributions of part-time politicians and generally eschews a political class, means that the personal skills and motivations of officeholders can directly affect administrative practices, such as the adoption of social media (Freitag, Bundi & Flick Witzig 2019). These three context-specific factors, alongside more universal drivers such as organizational capacity, demographic composition, and financial resources, both underline the relevance of the Swiss case and inform our hypotheses.
2.4 Hypotheses
2.4.1 Theories and models
This study applies the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework (Tornatzky & Fleischer 1990) to explain municipal social media adoption. The framework identifies three contextual dimensions shaping adoption decisions: the technological context (available technologies and existing infrastructure), the organizational context (size, resources, and administrative capacity), and the environmental context (external stakeholder pressures). Originally developed for private sector innovation, the TOE framework has since been adapted to public administration contexts (Baker 2012), examining adoption from an organizational rather than individual perspective.
Nevertheless, it does not fully account for the role of individual decision-makers. To complement this lacuna, we integrate Upper Echelons Theory (UET) to our approach. According to Hambrick and Mason (1984), organizational outcomes – including technology adoption decisions – reflect the values, experiences, and cognitive orientations of top executives. In Switzerland’s militia system, municipal council members are particularly influential: as part-time officials who simultaneously hold positions in the private sector, they transfer professional experiences and digital competencies directly into their political mandate.
Building on the TOE framework and Upper Echelons Theory, we develop five hypotheses organized into three categories: (1) structural and demographic characteristics, (2) financial indicators, and (3) individual political leadership factors Section 2.4.2 examines structural and demographic factors: municipal size as an indicator of organizational capacity (organizational context), and population composition – age structure and proportion of foreign residents – as drivers of citizen demand for digital communication (environmental context). Section 2.4.3 analyzes municipal debt as an indicator of financial constraints affecting organizational readiness (organizational context). Section 2.4.4 extends the TOE perspective by integrating Upper Echelons Theory to investigate how municipal council members’ personal social media engagement influences institutional adoption. The technological context of the TOE framework—referring to available technologies and existing infrastructure—is not included as a predictor, since social media platforms are universally accessible and do not require specialized technological prerequisites for adoption.
2.4.2 Structural and demographic characteristics
As a first category, within the organizational context of the TOE framework, organizational readiness – defined by available resources, IT infrastructure, and administrative capacity – constitutes a critical prerequisite for technology adoption (Premkumar & Roberts 1999; Wang & Lo 2016). Organizational size typically serves as a proxy for this readiness, as larger organizations possess the specialized structures, financial and human resources, and professional expertise required to implement new technologies (Damanpour 1992; Lee & Xia 2006).
Current research indicates that specific structural characteristics of a municipality are positively associated with its level of social media adoption. These factors include the size of the municipality (Guillamón et al., 2016; Faber, Budding & Gradus 2020; Stone & Can 2021). Similar results are found in analyses of website and e-government-adoption (Pina, Torres & Royo 2010). It is also demonstrated that larger municipalities have more opportunities due to greater available resources (Dias, Bruzza & Tupia 2023), such as their infrastructure (Gao & Lee 2017), personnel and financial resources (Budding, Faber & Gradus 2018; Norris & Reddick 2013), as well as the expertise available within their administration (Oliveira & Welch 2013; Steinbach, Sieweke & Süss 2019). On this basis we propose the following hypothesis:
H1: Municipal population size is positively associated with the likelihood that a municipality adopts at least one official social-media channel.
A second category of influencing factors relates to the environmental context of the TOE framework and captures external pressures from stakeholders that drive public organizations to maintain legitimacy and meet citizen expectations (Neumann, Guirguis & Steiner 2024; Wang & Lo 2016). The public expectations create a demand that influences municipal adoption of digital communication channels (Wang & Lo 2016).
In this regard, municipalities with a younger population share are more likely to adopt social media for local communication (Budding, Faber & Gradus 2018; Faber, Budding & Gradus 2020), whereas municipalities characterized by an older population (65+) are more likely to offer fewer digital services (Ruano de la Fuente 2014). This demand combined with a well-documented digital divide may lead to less social media adoption in municipalities with older populations (Lameiras, Silva & Tavares 2018). Based on these demographic considerations, we propose the following two hypotheses:
H2: An older population profile (higher share of residents aged 65 and older) decreases the likelihood of social-media adoption.
Also situated within the environmental context of the TOE framework are the needs of an economically and professionally diverse foreign-born population, which has varying communication needs. A higher overall proportion of non-national residents can be seen as an indicator of a greater general need for inclusive, barrier-reducing communication from a municipal governance perspective (Paganoni 2012). Previous research suggests that the proportion of foreign-born population may influence municipal social media adoption (Raimo et al. 2024). Some studies have confirmed this hypothesis (Bischoff & Wimberger 2023), while others have not (Guillamón et al. 2016). While previous research on this topic has yielded inconsistent results, we assume that Swiss municipalities with a significant foreign-born population have a greater incentive to use accessible digital channels for outreach. Therefore, we hypothesize:
H3: The higher the proportion of foreigners in a municipality, the higher the probability of social media adoption.
2.4.3 Financial indicators
Situated within the organizational context of the TOE framework is the financial health of the municipality. Consistent with Wang and Lo’s (2016) findings on the importance of resource availability, studies confirm that financial and human resources are fundamental prerequisites for adopting complex technological solutions (Neumann, Guirguis & Steiner 2024). Previous studies have also addressed the financial aspects of social media adoption. The utilization of social media is contingent upon the availability of financial and personnel resources such as skills, human resources, and time (Ganapati & Reddick 2014; Mearns, Richardson & Robson 2015). The absence of sufficient financial resources has been identified as a critical barrier in the public and municipal sector that can hinder IT projects such as social-media developments (Gil-Garcia & Pardo 2005; Norris & Moon 2005). We analyze net debt per capita as an indicator of these constraints. Silva et al. (2019) showed, for example, that in Portugal, social media usage is significantly higher among wealthier (and larger) municipalities. High debt limits the amount of resources a municipality can devote to the implementation and the maintenance of professional social media communication (Perea, Bonsón & Bednárová 2021).
Based on these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H4: The lower a municipality’s debt (net debt per capita), the higher the probability of social media adoption.
2.4.4 Individual political leadership factors
Using Switzerland’s particular socio-political and federalist structures, we develop context-specific hypotheses. In doing so, we intend to enrich the debate with variables that may have been previously overlooked in internationally comparative studies, and that might shed light on dynamics more visible in the Swiss context.
The Swiss militia system is a central and distinctive pillar of Swiss democracy, proving particularly pragmatic for small municipalities, where the limited workload means that professionalizing offices is neither economically viable nor organizationally necessary (Ladner 2019). Within this system, therefore, citizens assume public roles on a part-time and often voluntary basis alongside their professional, familial, and private commitments. This configuration has direct implications for the resources and competencies available to the municipal council (Freitag, Bundi & Flick Witzig 2019).
UET in this context suggests that municipal council members who are digitally active in their private or professional lives transfer this experience as a ‚cognitive map’ onto their political mandate. We argue that these individuals act as intermediary actors – their personal digital literacy reduces perceived uncertainty and legitimizes the use of social media within the administration. Consequently, municipal social media adoption is not merely a matter of resources, but a direct result of the digital mindset of its leadership. Based on these specific Swiss characteristics, we have developed a new, previously untested hypothesis:
H5: The probability of social-media adoption increases as the proportion of municipal council members who are themselves active on social media rises.
3 Methodology
3.1 Data collection & sample
The empirical analysis is based on a cross-sectional dataset of Swiss municipalities. The data collection was conducted as part of a research project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation within the framework of the National Research Program “Digital Transformation (NRP 77)”. To analyze how municipalities shape their communication and assess their current and desired states, a nationwide survey of 2,172 municipalities was conducted in autumn 2021. The survey was explicitly addressed to the municipal clerk, who serves as the chief administrative officer and has the best overview of administrative practices.
Of the municipalities contacted, 414 responded (response rate of 19.1%). The sample (n = 414) consists of municipalities from all cantons, language regions and size categories. The sample provides a reasonably accurate representation of the regional distribution of Swiss municipalities with deviations ranging between –2.3 and +3.0 percentage points (except Grisons +4.3% and Vaud –4.5%).
The questionnaire was designed to gather information on municipal communication instruments, resources, and practices. Additional structural characteristics of the municipalities (e.g., population size, age distribution) were provided by data from the Federal Statistical Office. The data on municipal debt were obtained from the cantonal statistical offices.
3.2 Measurements
3.2.1 Dependent variable
The dependent variable was directly surveyed in the questionnaire. The municipalities were asked whether they use social media for communication purposes (with a code of 0 indicating no use and a code of 1 indicating use). While the survey also captured which specific platforms municipalities use (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, X), this study focuses exclusively on the binary adoption decision. The question focused on official municipal communication by the municipal administration itself, rather than marketing activities by municipality-owned entities such as tourism organizations.
3.2.2 Independent variables
As presented in Section 2, this study examines the determinants of municipal social media adoption using a set of structurally and contextually grounded independent variables. Our independent variables fall into three categories: structural and demographic characteristics, financial indicators, and individual political leadership factors.
First, structural and demographic variables include municipal size, measured as the total number of inhabitants, based on official statistics from the Federal Statistical Office. For the regression analysis, population was entered in units of 1,000 inhabitants (i.e., population size / 1,000) to improve numerical stability and interpretability of the coefficients.
Additionally, population age structure was captured by the proportion of residents aged 65 years and older (% 65+), again using Federal Statistical Office data. This indicator reflects the relative weight of older age groups in the local population and is used as a proxy for potentially lower local demand for digital communication services.
We included the proportion of foreign residents as the percentage of inhabitants without Swiss citizenship. In the Swiss context, foreign nationals typically lack local voting rights and therefore rely more strongly on municipal information channels outside electoral processes. A higher foreign-resident share can thus be interpreted as indicating a greater need for inclusive, low-threshold digital communication.
Second, the financial predictor captures municipal fiscal health using net debt per capita (in CHF) as provided by the cantonal statistical offices. This measure reflects the difference between financial liabilities and financial assets, divided by the resident population. It is important to note that negative values indicate net assets (surpluses), i.e., financial reserves exceeding debt. For the regression, net debt was entered in units of CHF 1,000 per capita (i.e., net debt / 1,000), so that the coefficient represents the change in odds associated with an additional 1,000 CHF of net debt per inhabitant.
Third, we included social media use of municipal council members as a predictor. This variable is based on a survey item asking respondents to indicate their agreement with the statement that members of the municipal council are themselves active on social media to address political topics. Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) and treated as an interval-scaled predictor in the regression model. Higher values indicate greater perceived political social media activity among municipal council members.
Operational definitions and descriptive statistics for all variables are reported in Table 1. For the variable capturing municipal council members’ social media activity, 35 municipalities did not provide any data. These cases were excluded from the multivariate analysis via listwise deletion. Little’s MCAR test indicated that the missing data can be considered missing completely at random (χ2(6) = 8.617; p = 0.196), supporting the use of listwise deletion and resulting in an analytic sample of N = 379 municipalities for the logistic regression.
Table 1
Descriptive analysis of the examined variables.
| VARIABLES | N | MIN. | MAX. | MEAN | SD |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Communications on social media | 414 | 0 | 1 | 0.35 | 0.48 |
| Social-media-use municipal council members | 379 | 1 | 5 | 2.30 | 1.088 |
| Population size | 414 | 109 | 423193 | 7326.78 | 23468.17 |
| Proportion of foreign population | 414 | .92 | 55.37 | 19.71 | 10.39 |
| Age group % 65 + years | 414 | 9.88 | 39.30 | 20.13 | 4.31 |
| Net debt per capita | 414 | –68759.59 | 18054.89 | –847.28 | 6209.096 |
3.3 Analytical strategy
We employ binary logistic regression to analyze factors associated with municipal social media adoption. Details of model specification and diagnostic tests are presented with the regression results in Table 2. We apply the conventional significance threshold of p < .05. Effects that do not reach this threshold but fall below p < .10 are reported for exploratory purposes to inform future research; however, these findings are not statistically significant at conventional levels and should be interpreted with caution. We decided not to include fixed effects for cantons or regions in order to preserve model parsimony, especially since our sample covers all regions and our focus is on broad structural predictors.
Table 2
Results of binary logistic regression.
| VARIABLES | B | SE | WALD | p | ODDS RATIO | 95% CI FOR ODDS RATIO | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LOWER BOUND | UPPER BOUND | ||||||
| Social-media-use municipal council members | 0.436 | 0.122 | 12.730 | <.001 | 1.546 | 1.217 | 1.965 |
| Net debt per capita (in 1000) | –0.033 | 0.020 | 2.662 | 0.103 | 0.967 | 0.930 | 1.007 |
| Population size (in 1000) | 0.103 | 0.024 | 17.946 | <.001 | 1.108 | 1.057 | 1.162 |
| Proportion of foreign population | 0.024 | 0.014 | 2.794 | 0.095 | 1.024 | 0.996 | 1.052 |
| Age group % 65 + years | –0.038 | 0.031 | 1.460 | 0.227 | 0.963 | 0.906 | 1.024 |
[i] Note: Nagelkerke R2 = .306; Hosmer-Lemeshow Test: p = .300; Overall accuracy = 75.7%. Degrees of freedom were 1 for all Wald statistics. All VIF < 2 indicating no multicollinearity.
Significance: ***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05.
4 Results
4.1 Descriptive statistics
Among the 414 municipalities surveyed, 143 (34.5%) reported using social media as a communication tool. This adoption rate is relatively low compared to other countries and can be attributed to the substantial proportion of small and medium-sized municipalities in Switzerland. In international comparison, Switzerland has not only a large number of small municipalities but also an unusually high number of very small ones (Ladner, 2015). Today, about half of the municipalities have fewer than 1,550 inhabitants (BFS 2021). Nevertheless, other studies show similar adoption rates (Gao & Lee 2017 for Nebraska state).
A variable that had yet to be examined in the existing literature is the extent to which municipal council members engage with social media (see descriptives in Table 1). Most respondents disagreed with the statement that municipal council members are active on social media to address political topics (strongly disagree and disagree; 54.4%). Conversely, 54 municipalities (13%) reported that they somewhat agree or fully agree that their representatives are politically active on social media. 35 municipalities (8.5%) did not provide any information on this particular topic.
4.2 Analytical results
Prior to model estimation, key assumptions were verified. Linearity of the logit was assessed using the Box-Tidwell procedure (Box & Tidwell, 1962), applying a Bonferroni-corrected significance threshold of .0125 for the four continuous predictors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2018). All interaction terms were non-significant (p > .0125), confirming that the linearity assumption was satisfied. Multicollinearity diagnostics indicated no concerns, with variance inflation factors ranging from 1.022 to 1.224 – well below critical thresholds – and Pearson correlations between predictors remaining low to moderate (highest r = .356).
The binary logistic regression model was statistically significant, χ2(5) = 95.741, p < .001. The Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test indicated adequate model fit, χ2(8) = 9.524, p = .300. The model explained 30.6% of the variance in the outcome variable (Nagelkerke R2 = .306), which falls within the acceptable to good range for logistic regression models (Backhaus et al., 2006). Overall classification accuracy was 75.7%, with a sensitivity of 48.5% and specificity of 90.9%.
Two variables emerged as strong, significant predictors (Table 2): social media use by municipal council members (p < 0.001) and population size (p < 0.001). Council members’ social media use showed the strongest effect size; a one-unit increase on the social-media-use scale increases the odds of municipal adoption by 54.6% (OR = 1.546). The proportion of foreign population did not reach statistical significance at the conventional 5% threshold (p = 0.095, OR = 1.024), requiring cautious interpretation and further investigation. Contrary to expectations, neither net debt per capita (p = 0.103, OR = 0.967) nor the proportion of elderly residents (65+) (p = 0.227; OR = 0.963) were significant predictors in the adjusted model. All model coefficients and odds are presented in Table 2. The reported odds ratio indicates the factor by which the likelihood of a municipality adopting social media for communication rises as the corresponding explanatory variable increases.
5 Discussion
5.1 Interpretation of results
Our analysis identifies two robust predictors of municipal social media adoption: municipal council members’ social media use and population size (both p < .001). The unexpected non-significance of age structure and debt, along with weak evidence for foreign resident effects, challenges conventional assumptions about demographic and financial determinants. We discuss our findings organized by the three categories of determinants: structural and demographic characteristics (H1-H3), financial indicators (H4), and individual political leadership factors (H5).
The results demonstrate a positive association between the size of the municipality and the adoption of social media, supporting the hypothesis H1 (p <.001; OR = 1.108). This confirms, even in the Swiss case, the results outlined in the literature (Bonsón, Royo & Ratkai 2017; Budding, Faber & Gradus 2018; Guillamón et al. 2016; Pina, Torres & Royo 2010; Silva et al. 2019; Stone & Can 2021).
Interestingly, three of the assumptions found in the current literature did not prove true in our study. First, the hypothesis that municipalities with a higher proportion of elderly residents (65+) are less likely to adopt social media has been examined repeatedly in prior studies. However, in the present study, age structure did not have a significant effect (p = 0.227), rejecting the digital divide hypothesis (H2). This could suggest that decisions to adopt social media are made independently of residents’ demographic profiles. Furthermore, this unexpected finding indicates that in the Swiss context, technology decisions could be driven more by institutional factors and leadership vision than by demographic pressures. To sum up, hypothesis H2 is not supported, although other studies found a significant effect for the age group over 65 (Faber, Budding & Gradus 2020; Budding, Faber & Gradus 2018).
Secondly, unlike in other studies (Guillamón et al. 2016), the proportion of foreign residents did not reach statistical significance at the 5% threshold (p = .095, OR = 1.024), which requires cautious interpretation. While the positive coefficient is consistent with the hypothesis that municipalities with more foreign residents adopt social media for inclusive communication purposes, this finding lacks statistical significance at conventional levels; therefore, hypothesis H3 is not supported. Finally, contrary to previous findings (Silva et al. 2019; Bischoff & Wimberger 2023), financial health (net debt) was not a significant predictor (p = 0.103, OR = 0.967) in our model. H4 is therefore rejected. This implies that adoption is less a question of financial resources available and more one of prioritization and leadership. Theoretical explanations for debt effects remain contested: some suggest debt increases transparency pressure (Zimmerman 1977), while others argue it reduces communication incentives (Guillamón et al. 2016).
The most novel contribution of this study to existing literature is the examination of the impact of municipal council members on the utilization of social media for municipal communication. While existing literature has examined the characteristics of mayors and local politicians and their influence on municipal e-government tools (Patergiannaki & Pollalis 2023) and communication (Lameiras, Silva & Tavares 2018; Raimo et al. 2024) as well as participation (Szmigiel-Rawska, Łukomska & Tavares 2018) and transparency (Tavares & da Cruz 2014), the present study explicitly considered the social media communication behavior of municipal council members. The results show a significant influence of the social media use of municipal council members on the adoption of social media communication by the municipality, with an elevated odds ratio (p < .001; OR = 1.546), thereby supporting hypothesis H5. In this specific instance, an additional point on the 5-point scale, pertaining to the utilization of social media by council members, is associated with a 54.6 percent increase in the probability of social media adoption. This finding is central to our contribution. It highlights that in the militia system, individual digital competencies of leaders translate directly into organizational innovation. This finding is in line with the UET.
5.2 Practical considerations for municipalities
Switzerland’s militia system enables council members to transfer digital and non-digital experiences from their private and professional contexts into municipal governance, catalyzing innovation. In small municipalities, where strategic-operational separation is minimal, council members directly influence communication strategy. In larger cities, influence operates through formal communication concepts, with communications departments wielding greater influence. For municipal council members, this implies that digital affinity should be considered a strategic criterion in the announcement of the municipality’s strategy, thereby signaling to potential candidates that digital competencies are valued and encouraging digitally experienced individuals to run for the municipal council in the next election. Municipalities’ population can actively shape their communicative future by deliberately selecting candidates who possess experience and openness to digital communication channels.
The size effect has significant practical implications. Larger municipalities have more resources for and a greater need for specialized social media positions to bridge both the literal and figurative distance between citizens and representatives, making social media valuable for reducing information asymmetry (Guillamón et al. 2016). Smaller municipalities rely primarily on personal communication, like information events and physical meetings (Johannessen, Flak, & Sæbø, 2012). Despite lower adoption rates, social media remains relevant for small municipalities even with reduced posting frequency, fewer channels, or inter-municipal cooperation.
5.3 Implications for legislators and policy
The findings suggest that national- and cantonal-level governments should reconsider their support strategies. Instead of blanket digitalization initiatives, targeted programs for training council members might be more effective. Additionally, support programs should consider the different starting conditions of small and large municipalities. At the same time, digital education for the general population also plays an important role — after all, they are potential officeholders in a municipality.
Universities can also contribute by offering subsidized digitalization courses (including social media content) for newly elected municipal officials — funded, for instance, by the federal government and/or the cantons.
5.4 Implications for Research
This study extends existing literature by adding an important dimension: the influence of individual actors on organizational digitalization decisions. While previous research has primarily examined structural factors, this work demonstrates that decision-makers’ personal experiences and behaviors play a central role in institutional social media adoption. This points to new and potentially fruitful fields of research on the intersection of individual and organizational digital competence.
Furthermore, the results regarding age structure qualify previous assumptions about the digital divide. The lack of significance of age groups suggests that blanket assumptions about the digital behavior of different generations may need reconsideration.
Methodologically, this study demonstrates the value of integrating the TOE framework with Upper Echelons Theory. While TOE captures structural and environmental determinants, it overlooks individual agency; UET addresses this gap. Our findings validate this complementarity: both organizational capacity (H1) and individual digital competencies (H5) significantly predict adoption, while purely structural factors (H2, H4) prove less influential. This theoretical integration offers a more complete analytical approach for examining public sector digitalization.
6 Conclusion
6.1 Summary and key contributions
This study examined the determinants of social media adoption among Swiss municipalities, revealing two significant predictors: the social media use of municipal council members and population size. The proportion of foreign residents and per capita debt did not reach statistical significance at the conventional 5% threshold and age structure also showed no significant influence.
The most notable contribution of this research lies in identifying the pivotal role of council members’ personal social media use in driving institutional adoption. This finding highlights how individual digital competencies translate into organizational innovation within Switzerland’s militia system of governance. While the size effect aligns with the existing literature, its combination with council member influence reveals that leadership’s use of social media is crucial across all municipal sizes.
These findings emphasize that successful digital transformation in local government requires not only resources and infrastructure but also digitally engaged leadership. As local governments face increasing demands for transparent and inclusive communication, understanding these adoption drivers becomes critical for effective governance in the digital age.
The results also highlight the influence of individual municipal council members on local government operations, thereby emphasizing the significance of the militia system for Swiss municipalities — and for their digital transformation.
6.2 Limitations and further research
This study examined Swiss municipalities. The finding that municipal councils significantly influence social media adoption should be investigated in other national contexts to determine whether Switzerland’s militia system is unique in the extent to which it influenced results.
The cross-sectional design limits causal inference, particularly whether digitally engaged politicians drive adoption or whether innovative municipalities attract such leaders. Moreover, reverse causality cannot be ruled out: municipalities that adopt social media may subsequently encourage or influence their council members to become more active on these platforms, creating a reinforcing cycle rather than a unidirectional effect. The 19% response rate, while typical for municipal surveys, may introduce selection bias if digitally advanced municipalities were more likely to participate.
Further research should examine the citizen perspective, as this study focused solely on government views. Analysis of public acceptance, awareness, and impacts (e.g., voter turnout) could provide valuable insights. Our study analyzed only adoption decisions, not channel choice, usage intensity, or content.
Moreover, several unexplored variables merit investigation: economic structure (tourism vs. industrial municipalities), financial strength metrics beyond net debt per capita, media landscape (e.g. circulation numbers), and regional peer influence on adoption decisions (Sharif, Troshani & Davidson 2015).
Data Accessibility Statement
The data underlying this study have not been publicly released but may be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request.
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.