Table 1
Methodical Approach.
| STEP | OBJECTIVE | EXAMPLE |
|---|---|---|
| Deductive analysis | Use the Business Model Navigator, which includes service models, as a reference point and analyze the applicability of these models in the public sector. | “Hidden revenue” eliminated, “Crowdfunding” included on the list of service models in public administrations. |
| Inductive analysis | Identify additional real-life public sector service models by exploring the existing literature and examining real-world examples. | “Taxpayers’ money” included as additional service model in the public sector. |
| Expert discussions | Evaluate service models through discussions with practitioners and academics to identify weaknesses and drive improvements. | Edit wording in “Outsourcing” service model. |
| Clustering | Conduct a comparative analysis of service models to identify, describe, and cluster the roles of government in public service delivery then report back and discuss them with the expert group. | Government in its role as “activator.” |
Figure 1
Roles of the government in service models.
Table 2
Activator Service Models.
| SERVICE MODEL | MODE OF OPERATION | LITERATURE EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATIVE CASES |
|---|---|---|
| Contracting Out | The government mandates that a service provider deliver a specific public service directly to users. | Literature example:
|
| Crowdsourcing | The government involves a large number of external actors in value creation, innovation processes, or the generation of knowledge. | Literature example:
|
| Developer Platform | The government or a third party provides digital modules on a platform that other communities can use in developing their own applications. | Literature example:
|
| Fractional Ownership | The government shares ownership of an infrastructure that generates public value with individual private parties who may also be users of the public service. | Literature example: Goedkoop and Devine-Wright (2016) Illustrative cases:
|
| Government as a Platform | Creation of network effects among both the providers and buyers of services. This creates a motivation to use the platform. | Literature example: Jung et al. (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Orchestrator | The government coordinates the interaction of different groups of actors in such a way that public value is created. | Literature example: Shaw et al. (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Self-Service | The government lets citizens perform certain public tasks themselves. | Literature example: Paulin (2013) Illustrative cases:
|
Table 3
Yield Shaper Service Models.
| SERVICE MODEL | MODE OF OPERATION | LITERATURE EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATIVE CASES |
|---|---|---|
| Auction | Special public services are sold at auction to the highest bidder. The model leverages customers’ willingness to pay for prestige objects. | Literature example: Chow (2020) Illustrative cases:
|
| Crowdfunding | The creation of a service is financed by contributions from the community of potential users. The crowd can organize itself as a private company with ownership participation, but the model can also take more informal forms. | Literature example: Lee et al. (2016) Illustrative cases:
|
| Flat Rate | The government levies a tax on a service, but this is defined as fixed irrespective of the quantity purchased. | Literature example: Ehtasham (2022) Illustrative cases:
|
| Leverage Customer Data | The government generates data from a service that it then makes available for other services or to the public. | Literature example: Kim et al. (2014) Illustrative cases:
|
| Revenue Sharing | Collaborative creation of a public service leads to revenue that is shared among the different actors. | Literature example: Wang and Liu (2015) Illustrative cases:
|
| Sell Your Network | The government is part of a larger (exclusive) network and sells this advantage. | Literature example: Carrera (2014) Illustrative cases:
|
| Taxpayers‘ Money | The government provides a public service, which is financed by taxpayers’ money. This is free of charge for the beneficiary. | Literature example: Mules (1998) Illustrative cases:
|
| Trash-to-Cash | The government provides itself with a source of income from the waste of its citizens or from its own waste. | Literature example: Kabirifar et al. (2020) Illustrative cases:
|
| User pays | The government charges a fee for extraordinary burdens caused by an actor. | Literature example: Luppi et al. (2012) Illustrative cases:
|
Table 4
Funder Service Models.
| SERVICE MODEL | MODE OF OPERATION | LITERATURE EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATIVE CASES |
|---|---|---|
| Guarantees | The government enables the private party to raise capital at a low cost by guaranteeing the full loan or a portion of the loan. | Literature example: Bradshaw (2002) Illustrative cases:
|
| Payment by Results | The government pays the service provider based on the impact the service has. | Literature example: Janus and Keijzer (2015) Illustrative cases:
|
| Seed Money | The government provides start-up funding to a public service that subsequently becomes self-sustaining. | Literature example: Bakos (1997) Illustrative cases:
|
| Start-Up Loans | The government provides a private party with a (free) loan to set up a service, which must be repaid if the service is successful. | Literature example: Kratzer and Kato (2013)Illustrative cases:
|
| Subsidies | The government supports the private fulfillment of tasks with cash benefits. These can be investment or operating contributions. | Literature example: Zhang et al. (2022) Illustrative cases:
|
| Vouchers | The government supports persons by contributions to the consumption of necessary services. | Literature example: Bahta and Musara (2022) Illustrative cases:
|
| Waivers | The government promotes a specific task by waiving or reducing taxes or fees. | Literature example: Damuri and Atje (2012) Illustrative cases:
|
Table 5
Guardian of Public Goods Service Models.
| SERVICE MODEL | MODE OF OPERATION | LITERATURE EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATIVE CASES |
|---|---|---|
| Concessions | The government grants the private sector the right to extract a natural resource and charge third parties for the cost of producing the service. | Literature example: Örnberg and Ólafsdóttir (2008) Illustrative cases:
|
| Permits | The government grants or denies permits for activities that involve emissions for society. | Literature example: Ono (2002) Illustrative cases:
|
| Licenses | A license allows an actor to use a licensor’s intellectual property for commercial purposes. | Literature example: Lee (2016) Illustrative cases:
|
| Registrator | The government runs a register that clarifies relations, rights, and duties. | Literature example: Yadav et al. (2022) Illustrative cases:
|
| Regulator | The government regulates access to a network and competition in an area characterized by natural monopolies. | Literature example: Moran (2002) Illustrative cases:
|
| Sanctions | The government punishes behavior that does not comply with the law. | Literature example: Zahnow et al. (2022) Illustrative cases:
|
Table 6
Performance Designer Service Models.
| SERVICE MODEL | MODE OF OPERATION | LITERATURE EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATIVE CASES |
|---|---|---|
| Rent Instead of Buy | The government grants a paid, temporary right of use for part of its property. The user is effectively a tenant but has extensive rights of use. | Literature example: Hoppe and Thimm (2018) Illustrative cases:
|
| Add-on | The basic service is financed by the government, but additional services can be used for a fee. | Literature example: Gilson et al. (1995) Illustrative cases:
|
| Barter | The government exchanges goods, services, or rights with third parties without money being involved. | Literature example: Waters and Williams (2011) Illustrative cases:
|
| Digitization | The government provides (formerly analogous) services in digital form. | Literature example: Lindgren et al. (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Experience Selling | The government provides emotional value to a “natural” offering through clever labeling. | Literature example: Buurma (2001) Illustrative cases:
|
| Label the Level | The government offers different quality levels of a service and sells them at different prices with easily understandable names. | Literature example: Cutler (2002) Illustrative cases:
|
| Lock-In | Technical measures or penalties are used to keep switching costs high so that users do not switch providers. | Literature example: Vink et al. (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Mass Personalization | Personal configuration of standard modules creates individualized solutions for individual citizens or companies. | Literature example: Ibrahim (2013) Illustrative cases:
|
| Object Self-Service | Objects order materials autonomously. | Literature example: Ayele et al. (2020) Illustrative cases:
|
| Open Source | The government provides data or source code for its applications so that third parties can further refine and improve them. | Literature example: Kalampokis et al. (2011) Illustrative cases:
|
| Outsourcing | The government is responsible for performance but purchases input from suppliers. | Literature example: Tahir and Wang (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Sell Your Services | Government sells services in a commercial way to third parties (public or private customers). | Literature example: (Guenduez et al., 2023) Illustrative cases:
|
| Sensor as a Service | The government supplies sensors to the private sector to provide services to the public. | Literature example: García et al. (2020) Illustrative cases:
|
| Shop-in-Shop | In addition to the core offering, the government (or a leased-in actor) offers other services in the same infrastructure. | Literature example: Askim et al. (2011) Illustrative cases:
|
| Solution Performance Designer | The government organizes on the principle of “one face to the customer,” combined with a comprehensive service package in specific situations. | Literature example: Ladychenko and Tunitska (2019) Illustrative cases:
|
| Standby | The government ensures that a particular service is available to beneficiaries when needed. | Literature example: Perry and Lindell (2003) Illustrative cases:
|