Table 1
Characteristics of study participants.
| CHARACTERISTIC | MEDIAN (IQR); N (%) (N = 141) |
|---|---|
| Age (years) | 22.00 (21.00, 23.00) |
| Female gender | 92 (65%) |
| Semester | |
| 5 | 89 (63%) |
| 7 | 52 (37%) |
| Previous ultrasound-education (hours) | |
| 0 | 68 (48%) |
| 1–2 | 50 (35%) |
| 3–5 | 23 (16%) |
| Cognitive Reflection Test (number of correct answers) | |
| 0 | 8 (5.7%) |
| 1 | 14 (9.9%) |
| 2 | 35 (25%) |
| 3 | 84 (60%) |
Figure 1
Students’ average performance and confidence at time points T1 and T2, (A) average performance and (B) confidence for completed follow-up vs. lost to follow-up, (C) average performance and (D) confidence in the faculty-led group vs. peer-teaching group.
Table 2
Results from two linear mixed models with the dependent variable performance, only the fixed effects that are of main interest for this study are printed. Detailed results for control variables are given in Table A1.
| DUMMY MODEL FORMULA: PERFORMANCE ~ T2 + CONFIDENCE + T2 * CONFIDENCE + CONTROL VARIABLES + RANDOM EFFECTS | DEPENDENT VARIABLE: PERFORMANCE [0–50] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATES | std. Beta | 95% CI | p | |
| T2 | –2.59 | –0.09 | –4.45, –0.74 | 0.006 |
| confidence | 3.17 | 0.40 | 2.78, 3.56 | <0.001 |
| T2 * confidence | 0.62 | 0.08 | 0.08, 1.16 | 0.023 |
[i] Note. T2 is the OSCE at 6-month follow-up; CI, confidence interval; p-values p < .050 written in bold; control variables were: Age; Female gender; study semester; Previous US education; Additional US training after T1; Peer teaching vs traditional group; Cognitive Reflection Test; OSCE station in order; for the full results please refer to the supplement.
Figure 2
Students’ individual confidence over their individual performance at time points T1 and T2.
Figure A1
Changes in confidence and changes in performance per participant from time point T1 to T2, (A) by gender, (B) by confidence level at T1.
Table A1
Full results from two linear mixed models with the dependent variables performance and confidence.
| FIXED EFFECTS | MODEL FOR PERFORMANCE [0–50] | MODEL FOR CONFIDENCE [1–5] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATES | std. Beta | 95% CI | p | ESTIMATES | std. Beta | 95% CI | p | |
| Age | –0.15 | –0.04 | –0.42, 0.11 | 0.263 | –0.02 | –0.04 | –0.06, 0.02 | 0.321 |
| Female gender (Ref. Male) | 0.57 | 0.07 | –0.62, 1.75 | 0.35 | –0.37 | –0.35 | –0.54, –0.19 | <0.001 |
| 7th study semester (Ref. 5) | 1.86 | 0.22 | 0.02, 3.70 | 0.047 | 0.29 | 0.27 | –0.01, 0.58 | 0.060 |
| Previous US education [h] | 0.25 | 0.05 | –0.14, 0.65 | 0.205 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.00, 0.12 | 0.047 |
| Additional US training after T1 [h] | 0.24 | 0.1 | 0.09, 0.40 | 0.003 | 0.02 | 0.07 | –0.00, 0.05 | 0.077 |
| Peer teaching group (Ref. faculty-led group) | 3.87 | 0.46 | 2.75, 4.99 | <0.001 | 0.32 | 0.30 | 0.15, 0.48 | <0.001 |
| Cognitive Reflection Test [0–3 points] | 0.29 | 0.03 | –0.34, 0.92 | 0.372 | –0.04 | –0.04 | –0.14, 0.05 | 0.390 |
| OSCE station in order [1–6] | 0.21 | 0.04 | 0.06, 0.36 | 0.006 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.01, 0.06 | 0.002 |
| T2 (Ref. T1) | –2.59 | –0.09 | –4.45, –0.74 | 0.006 | 0.06 | 0.06 | –0.11, 0.23 | 0.492 |
| Confidence level [1–5] | 3.17 | 0.4 | 2.78, 3.56 | <0.001 | ||||
| Confidence level [1–5] * T2 | 0.62 | 0.08 | 0.08, 1.16 | 0.023 | ||||
| Random intercepts | ||||||||
| σ2 | 26.9 | 0.70 | ||||||
| τ00 students | 8.44 | 0.18 | ||||||
| τ00 examiners | 3.45 | 0.10 | ||||||
| τ00 osce stations | 4.5 | 0.11 | ||||||
| Nstudents | 141 | 141 | ||||||
| Nosce stations | 12 | 12 | ||||||
| Nexaminers | 29 | 29 | ||||||
[i] US, Ultrasonography; T1, OSCE at baseline; T2, OSCE at 6-month follow-up; σ2, residual variance; τ00, variance random intercept; N, number of groups; CI, confidence interval; p-values p < .050 written in bold.