Intergroup Reconciliation between Flemings and Walloons: The Predictive Value of Cognitive Style, Authoritarian Ideology, and Intergroup Emotions

Adorno T. Frenkel-Brunswik E. Levinson D. Sanford R. The authoritarian personality 1950 New York Harper

Alarcón-Henríquez A. Licata L. Leys C. Van der Linden N. Klein O. Mercy A. Recognition of shared past sufferings, trust and improving intergroup attitudes in Belgium Revista de Psicología 2010 28 1 81 110

Allport G. The nature of prejudice 1954 Cambridge, MA Addison-Wesley

Altemeyer B. Right-wing authoritarianism 1981 Winnipeg University of Manitoba Press

Bäckström M. Björklund F. Structural modeling of generalized prejudice: The role of social dominance, authoritarianism, and empathy Journal of Individual Differences 2007 28 1 10 17 10.1027/1614-0001.28.1.10

Bar-On D. Kassem F. Storytelling as a way to work through intractable conflicts: the German-Jewish experience and its relevance to the Palestinian-Israeli context Journal of Social Issues 2004 60 2 289 306 10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00112.x

Bar-Tal D. From intractable conflict through conflict resolution to reconciliation: Psychological analysis Political Psychology 2000 21 2 351 365 10.1111/0162-895X.00192

Bar-Tal D. Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics 2013 Cambridge University Press 10.1017/CBO9781139025195

Bar-Tal D. Halperin E. De Rivera J. Collective emotions in conflict situations: Societal implications Journal of Social Issues 2007 63 2 441 460 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00518.x

Batson C. D. Polycarpou M. P. Harmon-Jones E. Imhoff H. J. Mitchener E. C. Bednar L. L. Klein T. R. Highberger L. Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997 72 105 18 10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.105

Billiet J. Maddens B. Frognier A. P. Does Belgium (still) exist? Differences in political culture between Flemings and Walloons West European Politics 2006 29 5 912 932 10.1080/01402380600968802

Brown R. González R. Zagefka H. Manzi J. Čehajić S. Nuestra culpa: collective guilt and shame as predictors of reparation for historical wrongdoing Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2008 94 1 75 90 10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.75

Cacioppo J. T. Petty R. E. The need for cognition Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1982 42 116 131 10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116

Cehajic S. Brown R. Castano E. Forgive and forget? Antecedents and consequences of intergroup forgiveness in Bosnia and Herzegovina Political Psychology 2008 29 3 351 367 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00634.x

Chao M. M. Hong Y. Chiu C. Essentializing race: Its implications on racial categorization Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2013 104 4 619 634 10.1037/a0031332

Chen B. Van Assche J. Vansteenkiste M. Soenens B. Beyers W. Does psychological need satisfaction matter when environmental or financial safety are at risk? Journal of Happiness Studies 2015 16 3 745 766 10.1007/s10902-014-9532-5

Chen F. F. Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance Structural Equation Modeling 2007 14 3 464 504 10.1080/10705510701301834

Covell M. Ethnic conflict and elite bargaining: The case of Belgium West European Politics 1981 4 3 197 218 10.1080/01402388108424332

Cunningham W. A. Nezlek J. B. Banaji M. R. Implicit and explicit ethnocentrism: Revisiting the ideologies of prejudice Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2004 30 10 1332 1346 10.1177/0146167204264654

Davis M. H. Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1983 44 1 113 126 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Dhont K. Roets A. Van Hiel A. The intergenerational transmission of need for closure underlies the transmission of authoritarianism and anti-immigrant prejudice Personality and Individual Differences 2013 54 6 779 784 10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.016

Dhont K. Van Hiel A. Direct contact and authoritarianism as moderators between extended contact and reduced prejudice Lower threat and greater trust as mediators Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2011 14 2 223 237 10.1177/1368430210391121

Dijksterhuis A. P. Van Knippenberg A. D. Kruglanski A. W. Schaper C. Motivated social cognition: Need for closure effects on memory and judgment Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1996 32 3 254 270 10.1006/jesp.1996.0012

Duckitt J. Zanna M. A dual-process cognitive-motivational theory of ideology and prejudice Advances in experimental social psychology 2001 New York Academic Press 33 41 113 10.1016/S0065-2601(01)80004-6

Duckitt J. Sibley C. Right wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and the dimensions of generalized prejudice European Journal of Personality 2007 21 2 113 130 10.1002/per.614

Duckitt J. Sibley C. G. A dual-process motivational model of ideology, politics, and prejudice Psychological Inquiry 2009 20 2–3 98 109 10.1080/10478400903028540

Duckitt J. Sibley C. G. Personality, Ideology, Prejudice, and Politics: A Dual-Process Motivational Model Journal of Personality 2010 78 6 1861 1894 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00672.x

Duriez B. Van Hiel A. Kossowska M. Authoritarianism and social dominance in Western and Eastern Europe: The importance of the sociopolitical context and of political interest and involvement Political Psychology 2005 26 2 299 320 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2005.00419.x

Finlay K. A. Stephan W. G. Improving Intergroup Relations: The Effects of Empathy on Racial Attitudes Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2000 30 8 1720 1737 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02464.x

Fisher R. J. Interactive conflict resolution 1997 Syracuse University Press

Fontaine J. J. Scherer K. R. Soriano C. Components of emotional meaning: A sourcebook 2013 OUP Oxford 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199592746.001.0001

Frenkel-Brunswik E. Intolerance for ambiguity as emotional and perceptual personality variable Journal of Personality 1949 18 108 143 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1949.tb01236.x

Gawerc M. I. Peace-building: Theoretical and Concrete Perspectives Peace & Change 2006 31 4 435 478 10.1111/j.1468-0130.2006.00387.x

González R. Manzi J. Noor M. Tropp L. Mallet R. Intergroup forgiveness and reparation in Chile: The role of identity and intergroup emotions Moving beyond prejudice reduction: Pathways to positive intergroup relations 2011 Washington D. C. American Psychological Association 221 239 10.1037/12319-011

Halperin E. Emotional barriers to peace: Emotions and public opinion of Jewish Israelis about the peace process in the Middle East Peace and Conflict 2011 17 1 22 45 10.1080/10781919.2010.487862

Haslam N. Levy S. R. Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: Structure and implications for prejudice Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2006 32 4 471 485 10.1177/0146167205276516

Haslam N. Rothschild L. Ernst D. Essentialist beliefs about social categories British Journal of Social Psychology 2000 39 1 113 127 10.1348/014466600164363

Heaven P. C. Bucci S. Right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation and personality: an analysis using the IPIP measure European Journal of Personality 2001 15 1 49 56 10.1002/per.389

Hu L. T. Bentler P. M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 1999 6 1 1 55 10.1080/10705519909540118

Iyer A. Schmader T. Lickel B. Why individuals protest the perceived transgressions of their country: The role of anger, shame, and guilt Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2007 33 4 572 587 10.1177/0146167206297402

Jost J. T. Glaser J. Kruglanski A. W. Sulloway F. J. Political conservatism as motivated social cognition Psychological Bulletin 2003 129 3 339 375 10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339

Klein O. Licata L. Van der Linden N. Mercy A. Luminet O. A waffle-shaped model for how realistic dimensions of the Belgian conflict structure collective memories and stereotypes Memory Studies 2012 5 1 16 31 10.1177/1750698011424028

Kline R. B. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling 2015 New York Guilford Press

Korkmaz S. Goksuluk D. Zararsiz G. MVN: An R Package for assessing multivariate normality The R Journal 2014 6 2 151 162

Kossowska M. Hiel A. V. The relationship between need for closure and conservative beliefs in Western and Eastern Europe Political Psychology 2003 24 3 501 518 10.1111/0162-895X.00338

Kruglanski A. W. Mayseless O. Contextual effects in hypothesis testing: The role of competing alternatives and epistemic motivations Social Cognition 1988 6 1 1 20 10.1521/soco.1988.6.1.1

Mackie D. M. Devos T. Smith E. R. Intergroup emotions: explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2000 79 4 602 616 10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602

Manzi J. González R. Forgiveness and reparation in Chile: The role of cognitive and emotional intergroup antecedents Peace and Conflict 2007 13 1 71 91 10.1037/h0094025

Mardia K. V. Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications Biometrika 1970 57 3 519 530 10.1093/biomet/57.3.519

McCrae R. R. Costa P. T. Jr. Hogan R. Jones W. H. Openness to experience Perspectives in personality 1985 Greenwich, CT JAI Press 145 172

Medin D. L. Concepts and conceptual structure American Psychologist 1989 44 12 1469 1481 10.1037/0003-066X.44.12.1469

Murphy J. G. Forgiveness, reconciliation and responding to evil: A philosophical overview Fordham Urban Law Journal 2000 27 5 1353 1366

Nadler A. Liviatan I. Intergroup reconciliation: Effects of adversary’s expressions of empathy, responsibility, and recipients’ trust Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2006 32 4 459 470 10.1177/0146167205276431

Nagda B. Tropp L. Paluck E. Looking back as we look ahead: Integrating research, theory, and practice on intergroup relations Journal of social Issues 2006 62 3 439 451 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00467.x

Nicol A. A. Rounding K. Alienation and empathy as mediators of the relation between Social Dominance Orientation, Right-Wing Authoritarianism and expressions of racism and sexism Personality and Individual Differences 2013 55 3 294 299 10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.009

Noor M. Brown R. González R. Manzi J. Lewis C. A. On positive psychological outcomes: What helps groups with a history of conflict to forgive and reconcile with each other? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2008 34 6 819 832 10.1177/0146167208315555

Onraet E. Van Hiel A. Roets A. Cornelis I. The closed mind: ‘Experience’ and ‘cognition’ aspects of openness to experience and need for closure as psychological bases for right-wing attitudes European Journal of Personality 2011 25 3 184 197 10.1002/per.775

Pedersen A. Beven J. Walker I. Griffiths B. Attitudes toward indigenous Australians: The role of empathy and guilt Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 2004 14 4 233 249 10.1002/casp.771

Philpot C. R. Hornsey M. J. What happens when groups say sorry: The effect of intergroup apologies on their recipients Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2008 34 4 474 487 10.1177/0146167207311283

Pittinsky T. Rosenthal S. Montoya R. Tropp L. Mallet R. Measuring positive attitudes toward outgroups: Development and validation of the Allophilia Scale Moving beyond prejudice reduction: Pathways to positive intergroup relations 2011 Washington D. C. American Psychological Association 41 60 10.1037/12319-002

Pratto E Sidanius J. Stallworth L. Malle B. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994 67 4 741 763 10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741

Rochtus D. The Rebirth of Flemish Nationalism: Assessing the Impact of N-VA Chairman Bart De Wever’s Charisma Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 2012 12 2 268 285 10.1111/j.1754-9469.2012.01174.x

Roets A. Kruglanski A. W. Kossowska M. Pierro A. Hong Y. Y. The motivated gatekeeper of our minds: New directions in need for closure theory and research Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 2015 52 221 283 10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.01.001

Roets A. Van Hiel A. Need for closure relations with authoritarianism, conservative beliefs and racism: The impact of urgency and permanence tendencies Psychologica Belgica 2006 46 3 235 252 10.5334/pb-46-3-235

Roets A. Van Hiel A. Separating ability from need: Clarifying the dimensional structure of the need for closure scale Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2007 33 2 266 280 10.1177/0146167206294744

Roets A. Van Hiel A. Allport’s Prejudiced Personality Today Need for Closure as the Motivated Cognitive Basis of Prejudice Current Directions in Psychological Science 2011a 20 6 349 354 10.1177/0963721411424894

Roets A. Van Hiel A. The role of need for closure in essentialist entitativity beliefs and prejudice: An epistemic needs approach to racial categorization British Journal of Social Psychology 2011b 50 1 52 73 10.1348/014466610X491567

Roets A. Van Hiel A. Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the need for closure scale Personality and Individual Differences 2011c 50 90 94 10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004

Roets A. Van Hiel A. Dhont K. Is sexism a gender issue? A motivated social cognition perspective on men’s and women’s sexist attitudes toward own and other gender European Journal of Personality 2012 26 3 350 359 10.1002/per.843

Rosseel Y. Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling Journal of Statistical Software 2012 48 2 1 36 10.18637/jss.v048.i02

Schaap A. Political reconciliation 2004 London Routledge

Scherer K. R. What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information 2005 44 4 695 729 10.1177/0539018405058216

Shah J. Y. Kruglanski A. W. Thompson E. P. Membership has its (epistemic) rewards: Need for closure effects on ingroup bias Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1998 75 383 393 10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.383

Smith E. R. Seger C. R. Mackie D. M. Can emotions be truly group level? Evidence regarding four conceptual criteria Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2007 93 3 431 446 10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.431

Sorrentino R. M. Short J. C. Sorrentino R. M. Higgins E. T. Uncertainty orientation, motivation and cognition Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior 1986 New York Guilford Press 379 403

Swart H. Hewstone M. Christ O. Voci A. Affective mediators of intergroup contact: a three-wave longitudinal study in South Africa Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2011 101 6 1221 1238 10.1037/a0024450

Tadmor C. T. Chao M. M. Hong Y. Polzer J. T. Not just for stereotyping anymore: Racial essentialism reduces domain-general creativity Psychological Science 2013 24 99 105 10.1177/0956797612452570

Tam T. Hewstone M. Cairns E. Tausch N. Maio G. Kenworthy J. The impact of intergroup emotions on forgiveness in Northern Ireland Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2007 10 1 119 136 10.1177/1368430207071345

Tam T. Hewstone M. Kenworthy J. Cairns E. Intergroup trust in Northern Ireland Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2009 35 1 45 59 10.1177/0146167208325004

Tebbe E. N. Moradi B. Anti-transgender prejudice: A structural equation model of associated constructs Journal of Counseling Psychology 2012 59 2 251 261 10.1037/a0026990

Tropp L. Mallet R. Moving beyond prejudice reduction: Pathways to positive intergroup relations 2011 Washington D. C. American Psychological Association 10.1037/12319-000

Van Assche J. Roets A. De keersmaecker J. Van Hiel A. The mobilizing effect of right-wing ideological climates: Cross-level interaction effects on different types of outgroup attitudes Political Psychology 2017 38 5 757 776 10.1111/pops.12359

Van Assche J. Roets A. Dhont K. Van Hiel A. Diversity and out-group attitudes in the Netherlands: The role of authoritarianism and social threat in the neighbourhood Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 2014 40 9 1414 1430 10.1080/1369183X.2013.876895

Van Assche J. Roets A. Dhont K. Van Hiel A. The association between actual and perceived ethnic diversity: The moderating role of authoritarianism and implications for outgroup threat, anxiety, and mistrust European Journal of Social Psychology 2016 46 807 817 10.1002/ejsp.2211

Van Assche J. Van Hiel A. Stadeus J. Bushman B. J. De Cremer D. Roets A. When the Heat is On: The Effect of Temperature on Voter Behavior in Presidential Elections Frontiers in Psychology 2017 8 929 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00929

Van Hiel A. Cornelis I. Roets A. The intervening role of social worldviews in the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and social attitudes European Journal of Personality 2007 21 2 131 148 10.1002/per.618

Van Hiel A. Pandelaere M. Duriez B. The impact of need for closure on conservative beliefs and racism: Differential mediation by authoritarian submission and authoritarian dominance Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2004 30 7 824 837 10.1177/0146167204264333

Vollhardt J. R. Sinayobye Twali M. Emotion-Based Reconciliation Requires Attention to Power Differences, Critical Consciousness, and Structural Change Psychological Inquiry 2016 27 2 136 143 10.1080/1047840X.2016.1160762

Vos L. Coppieters B. Huysseune M. Reconstructions of the past in Belgium and Flanders Secession, History and the Social Sciences 2002 VUB Brussels University Press 179 206

Webster D. M. Kruglanski A. W. Individual differences in need for cognitive closure Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994 67 6 1049 1062 10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049

Wright S. C. Aron A. McLaughlin-Volpe T. Ropp S. A. The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997 73 1 73 90 10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.73