Table 1
Background characteristics of four novice table tennis players with different physical disabilities.
| CHARACTERISTICS | PARTICIPANTS | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | |
| Age (years) | 32 | 22 | 35 | 42 |
| Sex | Female | Female | Male | Female |
| Wheelchair User | No | No | Yes | Yes |
| Self-reported physical Impairment | Short stature | Cerebral palsy; impaired muscle power; hypertonia; athetosis | Paralysed waist down; impaired passive range of motion | Impaired muscle power; impaired passive range of motion |
| Prior Experience in Sports | Yes (Weightlifting) | Yes (Air pistol) | No | No |
Figure 1
Functional reach test to quantify the maximum area reachable by a player’s arm.
Figure 2
Experimental set-up for (a) forehand and (b) backhand table tennis skill tests – Participants returned a ball served by the coach to into a small target area marked by an A3-size area placed at the corner of the opposite diagonal half of the table.
Table 2
Players’ self-identified areas for improvement, perceived challenges, and assistance requirement.
| PARTICIPANTS | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 |
| Q1. How much do you want to improve your table tennis abilities? | |||
| Somewhat interested | Very interested | Somewhat interested | Somewhat interested |
| Q2. Are there particular aspects of table tennis game (e.g. forehand, backhand, spin, service) that you are interested in learning or improving? | |||
| No | No | Hitting the ball accurately | No |
| Q3. Do you foresee any obstacles or challenges (physical, mental, environmental, etc.) that would hinder you from playing table tennis? | |||
| Yes Physical – may not be able to run fast to react to the ball | Yes Physical – lack of mobility/balance | No | Yes Physical – breathless |
| Q4. Please indicate any specific skills or areas where you believe you require the most assistance or support. | |||
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Table 3
Individualised training sessions illustrating coaching progression over time, task difficulty adjustments, and adaptive strategies for players with diverse physical disabilities and learning needs.
| LESSONS | P1(STANDING PLAYER) | P2(STANDING PLAYER) | P3(WHEELCHAIR PLAYER) | P4(WHEELCHAIR PLAYER) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Hitting the ball with a forehand stroke to send the ball across the net. | Hitting the ball with a forehand stroke to send the ball across the net. | Hitting the ball with a forehand stroke to send the ball across the net. | Hitting the ball across the net while covering the racket’s angle. |
| 2 | Hitting the ball with a backhand stroke to send the ball long across the net. | Hitting the ball with a forehand stroke to send the ball across the net with a topspin. | Hitting the ball with a backhand stroke to send the ball across the net. | Hitting the ball with a backhand stroke. |
| 3 | Hitting the ball long using a forehand and backhand stroke. | Hitting the ball and accurately landing it in a specific location. | Pushing the backspin ball with forehand and backhand strokes. | Service and pushing. |
| 4 | Returning a ball that is hit with a backspin. | Smashing with a forehand stroke and blocking a topspin loop. | Pushing the backspin ball and blocking a topspin ball. | Service, forehand and backhand pushing, mirroring the shots. |
| 5 | Increasing accuracy while hitting the ball long with a forehand and backhand stroke. | Hitting the ball long with a forehand stroke and returning a backspin loop. | Returning a backspin ball with a topspin. | Blocking against a topspin ball and revising pushing. |
| 6 | Blocking a topspin ball. | Blocking a topspin loop effectively. | Smashing the ball into an open space to win a point. | Smashing using a forehand stroke and blocking against a topspin ball. |
| 7 | Winning a point through gameplay (placements of ball and strokes used). | Serving the ball accurately. | Mirroring of shots in a game and attacking gameplay. | Attacking gameplay on where to land the ball to win a point. |
| 8 | Winning a point through gameplay (placements of ball and strokes used). | Winning a point through gameplay (placements of ball and strokes used). | Attacking gameplay and backhand smash. | Winning a point through gameplay (placements of ball and strokes used). |
Table 4
Individual outcome scores and reliable change index (RCI) at different time points of table tennis training.
| PARTICIPANTS | PRE-TEST 1 | PRE-TEST 2 | PRE-TEST (AVERAGE) | POST-TEST | POST-TEST RCI | RETENTION TEST | RETENTION TEST RCI |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Functional reach “sweep area” (m2) | |||||||
| P1 | 0.88 | 0.53 | 0.70 | 0.74 | 0.28 | 0.59 | –0.93 |
| P2 | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.92 | 0.23 | 0.92 | 0.28 |
| P3 | 0.93 | 0.74 | 0.83 | 0.91 | 0.64 | 0.90 | 0.56 |
| P4 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.57 | 0.68 | 0.91 | 0.64 | 0.61 |
| Mean (SD) | 0.81 (0.17) | 0.68 (0.15) | 0.75 (0.14) | 0.81 (0.12) | 0.51 (0.32) | 0.76 (0.17) | 0.13 (0.72) |
| Forehand Test Scores | |||||||
| P1 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 31 | 5.1* | 34 | 5.8* |
| P2 | 16 | 18 | 17 | 18 | 0.2 | 31 | 3.3* |
| P3 | 19 | 27 | 23 | 30 | 1.7* | 24 | 0.2 |
| P4 | 22 | 29 | 26 | 19 | –1.5 | 24 | –0.4 |
| Mean (SD) | 17 (6) | 21 (9) | 19 (7) | 25 (7) | 1.4 (2.8) | 28 (5) | 2.3 (2.9) |
| Backhand Test Scores | |||||||
| P1 | 21 | 20 | 21 | 23 | 0.4 | 36 | 2.2* |
| P2 | 18 | 26 | 22 | 26 | 0.6 | 29 | 1.0 |
| P3 | 36 | 23 | 30 | 46 | 2.4* | 35 | 0.8 |
| P4 | 5 | 11 | 8 | 27 | 2.8* | 26 | 2.6* |
| Mean (SD) | 20 (13) | 20 (6) | 20 (9) | 31 (10) | 1.5 (1.2) | 32 (5) | 1.7 (0.9) |
| WHO-5 scores | |||||||
| P1 | 72% | 84% | 78% | 72% | –0.99 | 80% | 0.33 |
| P2 | 56% | 56% | 56% | 60% | 0.66 | 56% | 0.00 |
| P3 | 80% | 80% | 80% | 80% | 0.00 | 80% | 0.00 |
| P4 | 56% | 64% | 60% | 64% | 0.66 | 64% | 0.66 |
| Mean (SD) | 66 (12)% | 71 (13)% | 69 (12)% | 69 (9)% | 0.08 (0.78) | 70 (12)% | 0.25 (0.31) |
[i] *Indicates reliable changes exceeding the 90% confidence threshold (±1.645). WHO-5 scores are expressed in 0 (worst possible) to 100% (best possible quality of life).
Figure 3
Table tennis skill test scores of (a) forehand drives and (b) backhand drives assessed at baseline with double pre-tests (Pre-1, Pre-2), after selected lessons (L2, L4, L6) during the intervention, and at post-intervention and retention (4 weeks post-intervention).