Effects of a Six-Week Functional Training Program on Physical Performance and Passing Accuracy in Young Adult Male Soccer Players

Naparat Doungchan; Ratchaya Supalak; Kunanya Masodsai; Masashi Miyashita; Bulin Jirapongsatorn

doi:10.5334/paah.556

Graphic abstract

Graphical abstract showing functional training benefits on adolescent soccer players

1. Introduction

Among the technical elements that determine success in soccer, passing is widely recognized as a core skill that influences possession maintenance, game tempo, and scoring opportunities. Accurate and timely passing facilitates cohesive team structure and enhances the strategic flow of play. Evidence demonstrates that both short- and long-distance passing abilities depend on refined inter-segmental coordination and decision-making (Dambroz & Teoldo, 2023; Li et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2025). Analyses of elite competition further emphasize its importance: Ju et al. (2023) reported that English Premier League teams with higher passing frequency displayed more favorable goal outcomes, while Kempe et al. (2018) showed that pass accuracy and key pass creation are strongly associated with successful match performance.

Functional Training (FT) has emerged as a sophisticated paradigm that prioritizes dynamic, sport-specific movements performed in contexts closely mirroring actual match demands. Rather than isolating muscle groups, FT aims to optimize technical execution by concurrently enhancing muscular strength, functional mobility, neuromuscular control, and multi-planar coordination (Boyle, 2016; Fei, 2023; Weiss et al., 2010; Stańczak et al., 2025). Empirical evidence suggests that such interventions significantly bolster agility and change-of-direction proficiency (Jimenez-Iglesias et al., 2024; Makhlouf et al., 2018). In line with this, Baron et al. (2020) and Turna and Alp (2020) emphasize that the neuromuscular adaptations derived from FT—notably the optimization of motor unit synchronization and enhanced proprioceptive feedback—foster superior movement efficiency and postural stability. These physiological refinements are considered critical for maintaining technical precision and passing accuracy under high-pressure competitive conditions.

The primary rationale for this study is that enhanced kinetic chain integration and lumbopelvic stability provide a more consistent biomechanical foundation for passing (Kibler et al., 2006; Rivera et al., 2016). Successful technical execution in soccer, such as precise passing, requires the efficient transfer of force from the core to the distal extremities. By improving the synergy between the central nervous system and the stabilizing muscles, FT is expected to refine a player’s ability to modulate force and limb positioning (Boyle, 2016; Cook et al., 2014). While the benefits of FT on core stability and explosive power are well-documented (Hibbs et al., 2008; Prieske et al., 2016), this study serves as an applied extension by investigating the direct transferability of such neuromuscular gains to technical skills. Specifically, we aim to demonstrate how improved kinetic chain integration can practically manifest as enhanced passing precision and reduced performance errors under the temporal constraints of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) (Ali et al., 2007).

Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effects of a six-week FT program on passing performance in young adult male soccer players, with assessments conducted at baseline (Week 0), mid-test (Week 3), and post-test (Week 6). The research questions focus on whether a structured FT intervention—specifically designed to match the metabolic and technical demands of soccer through multi-planar movements—can significantly reduce total performance time and penalty seconds during the LSPT compared to traditional training. Unlike previous studies that primarily examine general motor abilities in youth cohorts, the novelty of this study lies in its focus on technical proficiency within a young adult population. By utilizing the LSPT as a validated measure, the study aims to capture the mechanistic link between integrated neuromuscular improvements and passing accuracy within a dynamic context. The findings are expected to provide practical guidance for coaches seeking evidence-based strategies to optimize the transfer of physical gains into technical skill development within a compressed training cycle.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Participants

Thirty healthy young adult male soccer players (aged 19–24 years) were recruited for this study. All participants had at least six months of competitive experience and maintained a consistent training schedule of 3–4 days per week. Exclusion criteria included individuals with chronic medical conditions, those who sustained injuries during the study period, and any participant who missed more than 15% of the training sessions. The research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and ethical approval was granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Walailak University (No. WUEC-25-188-01). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to the commencement of the study.

Initially, purposive sampling was used to recruit the cohort. To ensure adequate statistical power to detect meaningful changes, the required sample size was calculated using G*Power software (version 3.1.9.7). The calculation was based on a significance level (α) of 0.05, a statistical power (1–β) of 0.85, and an effect size of 0.70, derived from a similar intervention study by Baron et al. (2020) that used the LSPT as a primary outcome. Based on these parameters, a minimum of 24 participants (12 per group) was required. To account for potential dropouts, a total of 30 players were recruited. Participants were then randomly assigned to either the FTG (n = 15) or the CG (n = 15) using a computer-generated randomization sequence. To minimize selection bias, group allocation was managed by an independent researcher to ensure full allocation concealment.

Throughout the six-week intervention, the CG followed their regular soccer training (RST) three times per week. The FTG adhered to the same RST schedule but integrated the experimental functional training program. To maintain equivalent training volume between groups, the FTG replaced 40 minutes of their usual warm-up or conditioning with FT exercises, while the CG dedicated the same duration to traditional, non-functional exercises, specifically static stretching, basic calisthenics, and conventional core stability movements.

To control for potential confounding factors, participants’ additional physical activity outside the prescribed training was monitored using weekly self-report logs and verified through regular verbal confirmation with team coaches. Furthermore, all participants were strictly instructed to refrain from initiating any new high-intensity exercise programs or supplemental strength training during the six-week intervention period. This six-week duration was selected as prior evidence suggests that this timeframe is sufficient to induce meaningful neuromuscular and technical adaptations in athletes, particularly within a mid-season training block (Baron et al., 2020).

2.2 Training Protocol

The FTG followed a structured six-week functional training program, conducted three days per week. All training sessions were supervised by certified strength and conditioning coaches to ensure 100% adherence to the prescribed protocol, as well as to monitor proper technique and participant safety. Each 60-minute session comprised: (1) a 10-minute warm-up focusing on dynamic stretching and soccer-specific drills; (2) three targeted training stations (40 minutes total); and (3) a 10-minute cool-down with static stretching. To ensure progressive overload, both the intensity and technical complexity were increased every two weeks (Table 1), including reduced rest intervals and increased repetition volume.

Table 1

The Six-Week Functional Training Program with Progression Details.

PHASE	ACTIVITY	DURATION	DESCRIPTION	PROGRESSION STRATEGY (WEEKS 1–6)
Warm-up	Dynamic stretching & soccer-specific drills	10 min	Joint mobilization, light jogging, and ball feeling.	Increase intensity from low to moderate heart rate.
Station 1	Neuromuscular & Power drills	15 min	Bodyweight lunges, squat jumps, and single-leg squats combined with 10-m sprints.	Weeks 1–2: 10 reps, 45 s rest. Weeks 3–4: 12 reps, 40 s rest. Weeks 5–6: 15 reps, 30 s rest.
Station 2	Technical Precision	15 min	Inside-foot passes through markers and cones.	Weeks 1–2: 1.0 m gate width. Weeks 3–4: 0.7 m gate width. Weeks 5–6: 0.5 m gate width + verbal cues.
Station 3	Dynamic Passing	10 min	Paired passing at varied distances (10, 15, 20 m).	Weeks 1–2: Controlled 2-touch. Weeks 3–4: Alternating 1 & 2-touch. Weeks 5–6: Rapid 1-touch only.
Cool-down	Static stretching	10 min	Whole-body flexibility exercises.	Maintain consistency in duration.

In comparison, the CG performed a time-matched 60-minute routine to control for total training volume. This consisted of a 10-minute warm-up, 40 minutes of standard technical drills (comprising two 15-minute rounds of standard soccer kicking drills separated by a 10-minute active rest/skill practice), and a 10-minute cool-down. The standard drills focused on repetitive technical execution without incorporating the multi-planar or neuromuscular components characteristic of the FT program. All sessions in the CG were also supervised by the same certified personnel to ensure consistency. All participants in both groups were instructed to maintain maximal effort throughout the six-week intervention.

Additional physical activity outside the prescribed training program was monitored via weekly self-report logs, and participants were instructed to refrain from initiating any new high-intensity exercise programs throughout the 6-week study period.

2.3 Experimental Procedures

The experimental procedures were conducted under controlled conditions using standardized equipment, including Molten footballs (F5A3400/F5D3400), Casio stopwatches (HS-80TW), and a dedicated Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) kit. To ensure data consistency and minimize circadian rhythm effects, all assessments were performed between 4:00 PM and 7:00 PM under similar environmental conditions.

Data collection was carried out in three phases: baseline (Week 0), mid-test (Week 3), and post-test (Week 6). Recognizing the potential for learning effects, we conducted two familiarization sessions one week prior to the baseline measurements. During these sessions, participants practiced the LSPT and Y-Balance Test protocols until they could perform them consistently. To ensure peak performance during the final evaluation, post-test assessments were scheduled 48–72 hours after the final training session, allowing for adequate neuromuscular recovery.

Each testing phase followed an identical protocol. Participants first completed assessments for leg strength (leg dynamometer), agility (T-test), dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), sprint speed (30-m), and leg muscle power (Vertical Jump). These were followed by the LSPT to evaluate passing proficiency. Each test was administered twice, and the best performance was recorded for analysis. For the LSPT, performance was disaggregated into three components: total performance time, original execution time, and penalty seconds, allowing for a nuanced evaluation of both speed and technical precision.

The LSPT was employed as a validated measure of soccer-specific passing performance. As illustrated in Figure 1, the setup occupied a 12 × 9.5 m area with four wooden boards (2.5 × 0.3 m) positioned centrally. Each board featured a colored target pad (green, blue, red, or white; 0.6 × 0.3 m) with a 0.1 × 0.15 m black center line. This standardized configuration, following the protocol by Ali et al. (2007) and Stone & Oliver (2009), ensured consistency in measuring passing accuracy under time pressure.

Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) layout.

2.4 Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 27.0.1 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were used to summarize participant characteristics and performance outcomes. Prior to the main analysis, the normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, and the homogeneity of variance was verified via Levene’s test. Mauchly’s test was used to assess the assumption of sphericity; where this assumption was violated, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied. To evaluate the effects of the intervention, a two-way mixed-design Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) [Group (FTG vs. CG) × Time (Pre vs. Mid vs. Post)] was employed to examine within-group changes, between-group differences, and time × group interactions. In cases where significant main effects or interactions were detected, Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc tests were conducted for pairwise comparisons. Baseline group differences were confirmed using independent samples t-tests. The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Effect sizes were reported as partial eta squared ( $n_{p}^{2}$ ) to determine the magnitude of the intervention’s impact. This analytical framework provided a rigorous assessment of intra- and inter-group variations in physical performance and soccer passing accuracy following the six-week intervention.

3. Results

A total of 30 participants were included in the analysis, the CG (n = 15) and the FTG (n = 15), with mean ages of 20.73 ± 0.80 and 20.93 ± 0.59 years, heights of 172.20 ± 5.91 and 173.20 ± 7.14 cm and playing experience of 4.40 ± 1.84 and 4.73 ± 1.87 years, respectively. The detailed flow of participants through the recruitment, allocation, and analysis phases is presented in Figure 2.

Flow diagram of participant allocation and analysis.

3.1 Physiological data

Physiological Data: Statistical analysis revealed significant time × group interactions across several body composition parameters, most notably for leg muscle mass (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.56), body fat mass (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.52). While significant main effects of time were identified for body weight (p = 0.042, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.14), arm muscle mass (p = 0.011, = 0.21), and body fat mass (p = 0.025, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.17). no significant interaction effects were observed for BMI (p = 0.074, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.11) or arm muscle mass (p = 0.135, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.08).

Post hoc analysis revealed that the FTG exhibited a significant increase in leg muscle mass (from 36.88 ± 5.98 kg to 38.26 ± 5.58 kg; p < 0.05) and a significant reduction in body fat mass (from 14.16 ± 8.54 kg to 12.25 ± 8.21 kg; p < 0.05) from pre-test to post-test. In contrast, the CG showed no significant changes in leg muscle mass (36.91 ± 5.94 kg to 36.77 ± 5.62 kg) or body fat mass (14.48 ± 6.09 kg to 15.24 ± 6.52 kg) over the same period (p > 0.05). Additionally, at post-test, the FTG’s leg muscle mass was significantly higher, and body fat mass was significantly lower than those of the CG (p < 0.05). No significant interaction effects were found for BMI (p = 0.074, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.11). Comprehensive data are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

The physiological data of the CG and the FTG.

VARIABLES	PHASE	CG (n = 15)	FTG (n = 15)	p-value ( $n_{p}^{2}$ )
VARIABLES	PHASE	CG (n = 15)	FTG (n = 15)	TIME	GROUP	TIME × GROUP
Weight (kg)	pre-test	70.00 ± 11.77	69.26 ± 14.26	0.042(0.14)	0.820(0.00)	0.263(0.05)
	mid-test	70.21 ± 12.17	68.91 ± 14.60
	post-test	70.79 ± 12.43	69.50 ± 14.06
BMI (kg/m²)	pre-test	24.43 ± 3.62	23.11 ± 4.82	0.413(0.02)	0.232(0.05)	0.074(0.11)
	mid-test	25.96 ± 3.67	22.70 ± 5.00
	post-test	25.21 ± 3.65	23.25 ± 4.49
Arm muscle mass (kg)	pre-test	27.93 ± 3.71	27.29 ± 4.34	0.011(0.21)	0.998(0.00)	0.135(0.08)
	mid-test	27.97 ± 4.00	28.37 ± 3.99
	post-test	28.27 ± 3.98	28.53 ± 4.00*
Leg muscle mass (kg)	pre-test	36.91 ± 5.94	36.88 ± 5.98	<0.001(0.46)	0.703(0.01)	<0.001(0.56)
	mid-test	36.81 ± 5.66	37.75 ± 5.70
	post-test	36.77 ± 5.62	38.26 ± 5.58*^,†
Body fat mass (kg)	pre-test	14.48 ± 6.09	14.16 ± 8.54	0.025(0.17)	0.526(0.15)	<0.001(0.52)
	mid-test	14.32 ± 6.27	12.45 ± 8.24
	post-test	15.24 ± 6.52	12.25 ± 8.21*^,†

[i] Data are presented as mean ± SD.*p < 0.05, Time, **p < 0.05, Group, ^†p < 0.05, Time × Group, BMI = Body mass index.

3.2 Physical fitness test variables

The assessment of physical fitness revealed distinct developmental trajectories between the FTG and the CG across all evaluated parameters. Detailed results are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3

The physical fitness test variables were compared before and between the CG and the FTG.

VARIABLES	PHASE	CG (n = 15)	FTG (n = 15)	p-value ( $n_{p}^{2}$ )
VARIABLES	PHASE	CG (n = 15)	FTG (n = 15)	TIME	GROUP	TIME × GROUP
YBT-Right Leg (cm)	pre-test	108.35 ± 12.27	109.10 ± 15.05	0.142(0.08)	<0.001(0.33)	<0.001(0.42)
	mid-test	100.38 ± 11.94	116.25 ± 11.17^a
	post-test	101.25 ± 7.70	123.35 ± 11.57^b
YBT-Left Leg (cm)	pre-test	109.67 ± 10.14	109.38 ± 13.33	0.043(0.14)	0.006(0.24)	<0.001(0.54)
	mid-test	105.31 ± 6.73	116.83 ± 13.87^a
	post-test	102.71 ± 6.50	124.56 ± 14.49^b
T-test (s)	pre-test	7.90 ± 1.52	7.60 ± 1.03	0.040(0.14)	0.003(0.28)	0.187(0.06)
	mid-test	8.36 ± 0.89	7.20 ± 0.76^a
	post-test	7.70 ± 0.60	6.72 ± 0.55^b
30-m sprint test (s)	pre-test	5.26 ± 0.87	5.30 ± 0.54	0.054(0.13)	0.001(0.31)	0.001(0.32)
	mid-test	5.15 ± 0.74	4.71 ± 0.23^a
	post-test	5.53 ± 0.72	4.36 ± 0.28^b

[i] Data are presented as mean ± SD, ^ap < 0.05, vs. pre – mid, ^bp < 0.05, vs. mid – post. YBT = Y-Balance Test.

Regarding dynamic balance (Y-Balance Test), significant time × group interactions were observed for both the right and left legs (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ ≥ 0.42). The FTG demonstrated progressive improvements, with reach distances increasing significantly from mid-test through to post-test (Right: 123.35 ± 11.57 cm; Left: 124.56 ± 14.49 cm). Conversely, the CG exhibited a slight decline or stagnancy in balance scores compared to baseline. Consequently, at the six-week mark, the FTG achieved significantly superior balance performance compared to the CG (p < 0.001).

In terms of agility (T-Test) and speed (30-m Sprint), the functional training intervention effectively reduced completion times. By the post-test, the FTG significantly outperformed the CG (p < 0.001), recording faster times in the agility test (6.72 ± 0.55 s) and the 30-m sprint (4.36 ± 0.28 s). The magnitude of these improvements was further highlighted by a substantial interaction effect size for the sprint test $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.32), indicating that the FT program was particularly effective in enhancing explosive linear speed and directional changes compared to traditional training.

Vertical Jump Performance: The functional training program yielded substantial improvements in explosive lower-body power, as measured by the vertical jump. A two-way mixed ANOVA revealed a highly significant time × group interaction (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.64), alongside significant main effects for both time (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.78) and group (p = 0.015, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.20).

Post hoc comparisons indicated that while both groups started with similar baseline values, the FTG achieved significantly greater jump heights compared to the CG at both the mid-test (p = 0.001) and post-test (p < 0.001) intervals. Specifically, FTG demonstrated a consistent upward trajectory in performance throughout the six-week period, whereas the CG’s improvements were marginal. These findings suggest that the integration of functional movements was particularly effective at enhancing vertical power output compared to the traditional training followed by the control group.

Leg Strength: Assessment of lower-limb strength demonstrated significant improvements following the functional training intervention. A two-way mixed ANOVA revealed a significant time × group interaction (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.39), along with significant main effects for time (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.61) and group (p = 0.043, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.14).

Post hoc testing indicated that the FTG achieved significantly higher strength levels compared to the CG at both the mid-test (p = 0.012) and post-test (p = 0.008) intervals. While both groups showed some improvement over the six weeks, the FTG exhibited a much steeper increase in strength, whereas the CG’s progress was comparatively limited. These findings, as illustrated in Figure 3, highlight the superior efficacy of functional training in enhancing leg strength among young adult male soccer players.

Comparison of the leg strength and vertical jump tests between the functional training group (FTG) and the control group (CG) across three assessment phases.
Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < 0.05, Time, **p < 0.05, Group, ^†p < 0.05, Time × Group, ^ap < 0.05, vs. pre – mid, ^bp < 0.05, vs. pre – post, ^cp < 0.05, vs. mid – post.

Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT): The efficacy of functional training on technical skill was most evident in the results of the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT). A two-way mixed ANOVA revealed a highly significant time × group interaction (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.65), along with substantial main effects for time (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.38) and group (p < 0.001, $n_{p}^{2}$ = 0.39).

Post hoc analysis demonstrated that the FTG achieved significant improvements in passing performance, characterized by a marked reduction in total performance time (inclusive of penalty seconds). Although both groups exhibited comparable baseline proficiency (p = 0.678), the FTG significantly outperformed the CG by the mid-test (p = 0.018), with the performance gap widening further at the post-test (p < 0.001). These findings, as illustrated in Figure 4, suggest that the enhancements in core stability and neuromuscular control facilitated by FT translated directly into superior technical execution and passing precision under dynamic conditions.

Comparison of Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) performance between the functional training group (FTG) and the control group (CG) across three assessment phases.
Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p < 0.05, Time, **p < 0.05, Group, ^†p < 0.05, Time × Group, ^ap < 0.05, vs. pre – mid, ^bp < 0.05, vs. pre – post. PS = Penalty Second, ET = Executive time, LSPT = Loughborough Soccer Passing Test.

4. Discussion

This study examined the impact of a six-week functional training (FT) program on the physiological profiles, neuromuscular performance, and soccer-specific technical skills of young adult male players. Our results demonstrate that the FT group achieved greater improvements in nearly all performance markers compared to the control group. Specifically, significant gains were observed in lower-limb strength, dynamic stability, agility, sprinting velocity, and LSPT scores. These findings suggest that FT facilitates practical adaptations in neuromuscular coordination and movement efficiency—key attributes for meeting the physical and technical demands of modern soccer (Turna & Alp, 2020; Ferstle, 2024).

The improvements in Y-Balance Test and leg muscle mass highlight how FT targets the core determinants of movement quality. Soccer requires constant transitions, including rapid acceleration, deceleration, and multidirectional changes, all of which rely on a stable biomechanical base. The gains in postural balance and muscular strength observed here align with evidence suggesting that multi-planar functional exercises optimize intermuscular coordination. Such control is vital for maintaining postural stability during high-intensity technical execution and rapid transitions (Willardson, 2007; Padrón-Cabo et al., 2020; Da Silva-Grigoletto et al., 2020). Moreover, the improvements in 30-m sprint times and T-test agility support the premise that FT builds power through integrated, kinetic-chain movements rather than isolated muscle work (Gołaś et al., 2024). These adaptations are likely to allow for more efficient force transmission and stable limb positioning during high-velocity actions.

Technical proficiency, measured by the LSPT, showed a clear advantage for the FT group. Passing is not an isolated task but a complex skill requiring whole-body coordination and precise ball-interaction mechanics. Our findings are consistent with tactical analyses suggesting that elite-level performance is characterized by passing accuracy, which facilitates better ball circulation (O’Brien et al., 2021; Teixeira et al., 2021). The significant reduction in LSPT total time and penalty seconds suggests that FT reinforces the biomechanical foundation needed for technical execution under pressure. Specifically, by improving lumbopelvic stability, FT may allow players to maintain a more consistent center of gravity while striking the ball, leading to better precision (Lloyd et al., 2014; Rivera et al., 2016).

Regarding body composition, the significant interactions in muscle mass and body fat, despite stable BMI, reflect the metabolic and mechanical stimuli of FT. The lack of BMI change is expected given the six-week duration and the participants’ physical maturity. However, the shift toward increased muscularity suggests improved motor unit recruitment during FT sessions, which utilize multi-joint, task-specific loading (Tomljanović et al., 2011; Baron et al., 2020). Integrating these movement patterns is critical for young adult athletes to ensure that strength gains are effectively transferred into on-field performance (Read et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2011).

In summary, a six-week FT program is a practical strategy for concurrently enhancing the physiological and technical profiles of young adult male soccer players. By focusing on kinetic chain integration, FT helps bridge the gap between gym-based conditioning and the dynamic, multi-directional demands of competitive match play. These adaptations not only significantly improve LSPT performance but also foster the foundational movement qualities essential for long-term athletic success. For practitioners and coaches, FT offers a time-efficient strategy to simultaneously bolster neuromuscular control and sport-specific skills. Future research should employ longitudinal designs, incorporate on-field GPS metrics, and examine diverse competitive tiers to further substantiate the role of FT within the global soccer development curriculum. However, several methodological constraints observed in the current study should be acknowledged to provide a balanced interpretation of these findings.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that a six-week functional training (FT) program significantly enhances lower-limb power, dynamic balance, agility, and sprinting speed in young adult male soccer players. Beyond physiological gains, the intervention yielded marked improvements in soccer-specific passing accuracy and efficiency, as evidenced by superior LSPT performance compared to traditional training methods. These findings suggest that integrating multi-planar, task-specific movement patterns into regular training cycles optimize provides a robust framework for developing the neuromuscular control and technical precision necessitated by the demands of modern soccer. Consequently, coaches and practitioners should adopt FT as a time-efficient strategy to bridge the gap between physical conditioning with on-field technical execution. To further substantiate these benefits, future longitudinal research is warranted to assess the long-term retention of these skills and their direct impact on competitive match-play performance.

6. Limitations

Despite the positive outcomes observed, this study has several limitations that warrant consideration. First, while our randomized controlled design ensured a rigorous comparison, the six-week intervention is relatively brief, capturing primarily short-term adaptations. Consequently, the long-term retention and further progression of these improvements remain to be determined. Second, although the LSPT is a well-regarded proxy for technical proficiency, it cannot fully replicate the multifaceted nature of a 90-minute match, where cumulative physical fatigue and psychological pressure significantly influence performance. Third, while external physical activity was monitored via self-report logs, the potential for self-reporting bias remains a factor that may affect the absolute control of total training volume. Finally, as our participants were exclusively young adult male soccer players, these findings may not be directly applicable to other populations, such as female athletes or elite professionals with different training backgrounds. Nevertheless, these limitations provide a clear roadmap for future research to integrate longitudinal match-day analytics.

Data Accessibility Statement

The datasets generated and analyzed for this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Ethics and Consent

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Walailak University (WUEC-25-188-01).

Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to all participants for their time and invaluable contributions to this research. Special thanks are extended to the undergraduate assistants for their essential support in the data collection process, namely Mr. Puripat Choowong, Mr. Tanakrit Komai, Mr. Nawapat Jitnurak, Mr. Yuttikorn Sutin, Mr. Pipatpong Supparak, and Mr. Nutchanon Chareonpo. The successful completion of this study was made possible through their dedicated commitment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.D., R.S., and B.J.; Methodology, N.D., R.S., and B.J.; Validation, K.M. and M.M.; Formal Analysis, N.D., R.S., and B.J.; Investigation, N.D.; Resources, K.M.; Data Curation, N.D. and R.S.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, N.D.; Writing—Review and Editing, K.M., M.M., and B.J.; Visualization, N.D. and R.S.; Supervision, B.J.; Project Administration, N.D., B.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.