Introduction
Physical fitness, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular function, and cognition are vital aspects of overall well-being, especially in middle-aged adults whose risks of cardiometabolic diseases and premature mortality increase (Nooijen et al. 2019). Lifestyle factors, including physical activity and inactivity, play a crucial role in improving or diminishing these aspects of overall health. Physical inactivity is associated with reduced physical fitness, impaired vascular function, cognitive decline, and elevated cardiovascular risks (Hartman et al. 2021; Falck et al. 2017). Among a variety of occupations, office workers often experience sedentary behavior and physical inactivity characterized by prolonged sitting during working hours. Indeed, sedentary office workers exhibit substantially lower levels of musculoskeletal and cardiovascular fitness. (del Pozo-Cruz et al. 2013; Prince et al. 2019).
Regular aerobic exercise can mitigate the negative effects of physical inactivity by improving subclinical markers of cardiovascular disease such as endothelial function, carotid intima-media thickness, and arterial stiffness (Tanaka et al. 2002; Seals et al. 2019). It is also linked to enhanced brain health and cognitive performance (Basso et al. 2022; Tarumi et al. 2013). Importantly, high levels of aerobic fitness are associated with better cognitive function in general and executive function in particular in office workers (Pantzar et al. 2018). Many office workers attempt to maintain overall physical fitness through traditional activities like walking, jogging, or gym workouts that meet general physical activity recommendations. Currently, it is not clear how much and what kind of physical activity office workers should perform. Physical activity can be classified into three levels. Low, moderate, and high physical activity levels were defined as <600, 600–2999, and ≥3000 metabolic equivalent task (MET)-minutes per week, respectively (Sathish & Mathews 2023; WHO, 2012; Chu et al. 2015; AlTamimi et al. 2022). It is recommended that a minimum of 500 MET- minutes of physical activity per week should be achieved in order to experience health benefits (Lauer et al. 2017). A higher level of total physical activity is strongly associated with a lower risk of cancer, diabetes, and ischemic heart disease with most health gains occurring at a total activity level of 3,000–4,000 MET-min/week (Kyu et al. 2016).
The dose-response relationship refers to the extent to which varying amounts, intensities, and durations of exercise elicit proportional health benefits. Some studies indicate that even small amounts of physical activity yield meaningful reductions in CVD risk, whereas others raise concerns about potential adverse effects of excessive endurance exercise (Ishikawa-Takata et al. 2003). Hormesis in exercise operates in the principle that excessive exercise or stress overwhelms the body’s ability to adapt, potentially leading to negative health outcomes. Given this, it is not clear whether the higher intensity and higher volume of exercise may confer cardiovascular and cognitive benefits in middle-aged male office workers. Because of the well-known phenomenon of hormesis surrounding the amount of physical activity and health impact, this dose-response-related question is very difficult to answer.
In relation to the dose-response relationship involving exercise, there has been growing interest in understanding how different types and intensities of physical activity impact health-related physical fitness, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular functions, and cognition. In this context, trail running has experienced exponential growth in popularity as an endurance sport, especially among middle-aged adults (Panthong et al. 2023). Trail running often involves significant vertical displacement, including both uphill and downhill sections (Ehrström et al., 2018) and may offer unique physical fitness, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal benefits due to its high intensity and endurance demands (Zimmermann et al. 2022). Indeed, trail runners perform many training activities, such as cardiovascular fitness, neuromuscular function, balance, agility, and coordination (Coates et al. 2021). The total exercise may exceed 300 minutes/week and 5–6 days/week. However, cardiovascular and cognitive dysfunction could occur during training and after prolonged races (Perrotta et al., 2022). For example, participation in ultra-marathon events has been linked to acute, temporary increases in arterial stiffness (Burr et al. 2014; Bonsignore et al. 2017).
With this information as background, this study compared health-related physical fitness, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular functions, and cognition of middle-aged male office workers who had been performing adequate amounts of regular physical activity with those who had been participating in trail running. It was hypothesized that office workers performing vigorous physical activity (i.e., trail running) would demonstrate greater benefits in physical fitness, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular functions, and cognition than those participating in moderate or adequate physical activity on a regular basis.
Methods
Participants
A total of 29 male full-time office workers with an age range of 35–40 years were recruited from university administrative offices. They had been engaged in office-based work involving predominantly desk-bound tasks and included administrative personnel, researchers, and technical staff. Participants were separated into two groups: those who had been performing sufficient levels of physical activity (Adequate PA; n = 14) and those who had been participating in recreational trail running (Trail Runners; n = 15). The Adequate PA group had been performing moderate amounts of recreational physical activity, encompassing walking/jogging on the road or treadmill, body weight and free weight resistance exercises, and yoga. The amount of physical activity was ≥600 and ≤3,000 MET-min/week. The Trail runners reported five to six days of any combination of moderate to vigorous-intensity trail running, with more than 3,000 MET-min/week, which is classified as high intensity according to the GPAQ analysis guide (WHO 2012; Chu et al. 2015; AlTamimi et al. 2022). The trail running group engaged in a variety of other training activities, i.e., weight training, long-distance running, trail running race, etc., with an average weekly duration of 380 ± 61 minutes.
All participants completed a medical history questionnaire and the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q+) to determine eligibility. The levels of physical activity of the participants were assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ, version 2.0), a tool developed by the WHO (2012). The participants who completed the questionnaire were then invited to take part in a series of face-to-face interviews, which were conducted by trained researchers. All participants completed a questionnaire regarding alcohol and tobacco consumption and sleep behavior. The GPAQ comprises 16 questions covering three domains: work, transport, and recreation. The intensity of physical activity is expressed in metabolic equivalent of tasks (METs), with moderate-intensity activities assigned 4 METs and vigorous-intensity activities assigned 8 METs. According to the GPAQ analysis guide, physical activity is categorized into three levels. The high category is at least 3 days of vigorous activity totaling ≥1,500 MET-min/week or ≥7 days of any combination of walking, moderate, or vigorous activity totaling ≥3,000 MET-min/week. The moderate category is ≥3 days of vigorous activity for ≥20 min/day, or ≥5 days of moderate activity for ≥30 min/day, or ≥5 days of any combination totaling ≥600 MET-min/week. The low category is defined as not meeting the aforementioned criteria (WHO 2012; Chu et al. 2015; AlTamimi et al. 2022).
Participants had no chronic medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease or other chronic degenerative diseases. No participants were taking any prescribed medications. Participants without a window at the temporal bone of the skull for transcranial Doppler ultrasound assessment were excluded (n = 2). This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards set forth in the Helsinki Declaration. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee for Research Involving Human Research Participants at Chulalongkorn University (COA NO.087/67). Prior to participation, all participants were provided with detailed information about the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Written informed consents were obtained from all participants before data collection. The confidentiality and anonymity of all participants were strictly maintained, and all collected data were used solely for research purposes.
Measurements
Prior to the commencement of the testing, participants were requested to abstain from alcohol, caffeine, physical exercise, and nutrition supplements for a minimum period of 24 hours. The primary outcomes are health-related physical fitness and vascular function. Secondary outcomes include cognitive function and cognitive stress testing.
Primary outcome measures
Health-related physical fitness
Blood pressure and heart rate were assessed using a semi-automated blood pressure device (CARESCAPE V100, GE Dinamap, WI, USA). Body composition was determined via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (GE Healthcare, Madison, WI). Flexibility was evaluated using the sit-and-reach test, where participants sat with legs extended and feet against the sit-and-reach box (Jo et al. 2018).
Muscular endurance was assessed through push-ups and sit-ups, with participants performing as many repetitions as possible in 60 seconds. For the push-up test, participants started in a plank position with hands shoulder-width apart and feet together. A full repetition required lowering the chest to the ground while maintaining a rigid body. The sit-up test involved a supine position with knees at 90°, hands behind the neck, and required touching the elbows to the knees before returning to the start position (Katzmarzyk & Craig 2002; Chen et al. 2018; Kellner et al. 2021).
Lower body strength was assessed using the chair stand test. Participants performed as many sit-to-stand cycles as possible in 60 seconds, sitting on a 46 cm chair without armrests, feet parallel, and arms either hanging or on the hips. Each repetition required full knee extension when standing and contact with the chair when sitting (Jo et al. 2018; Strassmann et al. 2013).
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), an index of cardiorespiratory fitness, was evaluated via a graded exercise test on the treadmill (Trackmaster TMX 425 CP, USA) following the Bruce protocol. After a 5-minute warm-up, intensity increased every three minutes until volitional exhaustion. A valid VO2max required meeting at least two criteria: a plateau in oxygen consumption with increasing work rate, a respiratory exchange ratio ≥1.1, an RPE of ≥17, or reaching age-predicted maximal heart rate ±10 bpm as previously described (Saitong et al., 2024).
Arterial function and structure
Brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV) was measured as an index of arterial stiffness using a noninvasive vascular screening device (VP-1000 Plus, Omron Healthcare, Japan) (Suntraluck et al. 2017). Blood pressure was recorded in all four limbs, along with an electrocardiogram.
Carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) was assessed via ultrasound (Philips EPIQ 5, Philips Healthcare) with a high-resolution linear transducer. Images were captured from the proximal 1–2 cm of the common carotid artery and analyzed using automated software (Carotid Analyzer, Medical Imaging Applications, IA). Carotid IMT was defined as the distance between the lumen-intima and media-adventitia interfaces (Chuensiri et al. 2018).
Flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) was measured as an index of endothelium-dependent vasodilation using the EPIQ 5 ultrasound system (Philips Healthcare). The brachial artery was imaged 5 cm above the antecubital fossa. A forearm cuff was inflated to 50 mmHg above systolic blood pressure for five minutes and then deflated during recovery. Artery diameters were analyzed with digital software (Brachial Analyzer, Medical Imaging Applications). FMD was calculated as: (peak post-occlusion diameter – baseline diameter)/(baseline diameter) × 100 (Ploydang et al. 2023).
Secondary outcome measures
Cerebral blood velocity
Middle cerebral artery (MCA) blood velocity was evaluated using ultrasound (CX50, Philips Healthcare, Anodover, MA, USA) on transcranial Doppler (TCD) mode with a 1.8 MHz transcranial Doppler transducer (S5–1, Philips Healthcare, Anodover, MA, USA). The transducer was placed at the left temporal window and fixed with a probe holder during the cognitive testing session. Cerebral artery blood velocity was recorded at baseline, after 1-Back, and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) (Leelartapin et al. 2023). The pulsatility index (PI), an indicator of cerebral vascular resistance, was calculated as the difference between systolic and diastolic velocity divided by mean blood velocity (Ploydang et al. 2023).
Cognitive stress testing
The 1-back test and Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) were conducted using the Psychology Experiment Building Language (PEBL) 2.1 on a computer. The 1-back test assessed working memory by displaying alternating letters and squares in a nine-block grid. Participants pressed the left key if the current letter matched the previous one and the right key if the square appeared in the same position. Reaction times of the dominant hand were recorded as the average response time (Leelartapin et al. 2023).
In the SCWT (Scarpina & Tagini 2017), participants identified the font color (red, blue, green, or yellow) of a displayed word by pressing the corresponding number on the keyboard. The task included congruent (word and color match) and incongruent (word and color differ) trials. The incongruent task required response inhibition and working memory, aligning with the strength model of self-control. Participants selected the correct font color from two options displayed in black in the bottom corners, responding via left or right key presses. Performance was measured by reaction time (Dallaway et al. 2023).
Cognitive function questionnaire
Each participant completed two questionnaires to assess cognitive function. The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) evaluates various cognitive domains, including visuospatial and executive function, naming, memory, attention, language, abstraction, delayed recall, and orientation. It is utilized for cognitive screening to identify mild cognitive impairment, with scores ranging from 18 to 24 out of a possible 30 (Tangwongchai et al. 2009). The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) is a 30-item questionnaire covering seven domains: orientation to time, orientation to place, registration, attention and calculation, word recall, language, and visual construction (Tanglakmankhong et al. 2022).
Statistical analyses
The sample size was calculated using a priori analysis with G*Power version 3.1.9.2 data analysis software (Department of Cognitive and Industrial Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany), with power = 0.8, α-level = 0.05, and effect size = 0.54, using the data provided in a previous study that examined sex differences in physical fitness (King et al. 2021). A minimum of fifteen participants in each group was required for the study. All data were analyzed using the statistical software package SPSS (version 23; IBM, Armonk, NY). Prior to conducting parametric analyses, the normal distribution of the data was confirmed using a Shapiro-Wilk test. The significant differences between the groups were determined using an independent Student’s t-test. One-way ANOVA with repeated measure was employed to examine the cognitive performance of the participants at three distinct time points: baseline, post-task, and recovery, followed by LSD post hoc tests. Associations of interest were analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficients. Descriptive data were expressed as means ± SD. The threshold for statistical significance was set a priori at P < 0.05.
Results
As illustrated in Table 1, Adequate PA had a mean age of 40.5 ± 3.5 years, height of 173 ± 4 cm, and body weight of 79.4 ± 10.6 kg. They performed regular physical activity for 1,907 ± 615 MET-min/week. Trail runners had a mean age of 40.2 ± 3.2 years, height of 171 ± 8 cm, and body weight of 69.4 ± 10.0 kg. They performed regular physical activity for 5,188 ± 244 MET-min/week. There were no significant differences in age, height, diastolic blood pressure, or mean blood pressure between the two groups. Trail runners had significantly lower body weight, body mass index (BMI), heart rate, and systolic blood pressure than Adequate PA (all p < 0.05). Trail runners exhibited lower body fat percentage and fat mass, while displaying higher physical activity, VO2max, and muscle strength and endurance, as assessed by the chair-stand test than Adequate PA (all p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in the push-up, sit-up, and sit-and-reach tests between the groups.
Table 1
Selected characteristics of middle-aged male office workers who had been performing adequate amounts of physical activity (Adequate PA) and trail running on a regular basis (Trail runners).
| VARIABLES | ADEQUATE PA (n = 14) | TRAIL RUNNERS (n = 15) | t | p-VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 40.5 ± 3.5 | 40.2 ± 3.2 | 0.241 | 0.811 |
| Height (cm) | 173 ± 4 | 171 ± 8 | 0.830 | 0.414 |
| Body weight (kg) | 79.4 ± 10.6 | 69.4 ± 10.0* | 2.611 | 0.015 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 26.1 ± 3.0 | 23.5 ± 2.3* | 2.533 | 0.017 |
| Body fat (%) | 29.7 ± 2.7 | 23.3 ± 4.2* | 4.920 | 0.001 |
| Fat mass (kg) | 22.9 ± 4.0 | 15.9 ± 4.8* | 4.202 | 0.001 |
| Lean mass (kg) | 53.7 ± 7.1 | 49.5 ± 7.3 | 1.567 | 0.128 |
| Heart rate (bpm) | 70.0 ± 8.5 | 58.0 ± 8.1* | 3.893 | 0.001 |
| Systolic BP (mmHg) | 127 ± 12 | 119 ± 5* | 2.421 | 0.013 |
| Diastolic BP (mmHg) | 76 ± 9 | 75 ± 6 | 0.407 | 0.688 |
| Mean BP (mmHg) | 95 ± 16 | 89 ± 5 | 1.431 | 0.164 |
| Sit and reach (cm) | –0.6 ± 10.2 | 5.8 ± 10.2 | 1.684 | 0.104 |
| Push-up (n) | 26.1 ± 9.5 | 34.9 ± 14.9 | 1.907 | 0.069 |
| Sit-up (n) | 29.6 ± 9.6 | 33.8 ± 8.8 | 1.212 | 0.236 |
| Chair-stand (n) | 46.8 ± 9.6 | 55.5 ± 11.2* | 2.267 | 0.032 |
| VO2max (ml/kg/min) | 36.8 ± 6.3 | 48.4 ± 8.3* | 4.270 | 0.001 |
| Physical activity (MET.min/week) | 1907 ± 1615 | 5188 ± 1244* | 6.154 | 0.001 |
| Sleep duration (hours) | 6.5 ± 1.1 | 6.6 ± 0.9 | –0.336 | 0.739 |
| Coffee intake (cups/week) | 8.8 ± 3.0 | 7.3 ± 3.7 | 1.190 | 0.244 |
| Alcohol intake (bottle/week) | 4.2 ± 2.0 | 4.0 ± 2.9 | 1.21 | 0.906 |
[i] Data are means ± SD. *P < 0.05 vs. Adequate PA. BP = blood pressure; VO2max = maximal oxygen consumption, MET = metabolic equivalent.
As illustrated in Figure 1, Trail runners had significantly lower carotid IMT and baPWV and greater FMD compared with Adequate PA (all p < 0.05). There was a significant and positive association between FMD and physical activity level (r = 0.53, p = 0.003).
Figure 1
Vascular function and structure of middle-aged male office workers who had been performing adequate amounts of physical activity (Adequate PA) and trail running on a regular basis (Trail runners).
*P < 0.05 vs. Adequate PA. baPWV = brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity; IMT = intima-media thickness; FMD = flow-mediated dilatation.
No significant differences were observed in MoCA score, 1-back reaction time, SCWT congruence, and incongruence reaction time between the groups (Table 2). Figure 2 depicts cerebral blood flow velocity during the cognitive task. A markedly elevated time-averaged mean blood velocity (TAMV) was discerned at the post and recovery phases of the SCWT, but not for the 1 n-back task, in both groups. No statistically significant differences in TAMV were observed between the groups at baseline, post tasks, and recovery of the 1-back and SCWT tasks. The PI was elevated at the post-task and recovery periods in both groups when compared with the baseline. Trail runners exhibited significantly lower PI values than Adequate PA at post and recovery periods following the 1-back and SCWT tasks (all p < 0.05).
Table 2
Cognitive function of middle-aged male office workers who had been performing adequate amounts of physical activity (Adequate PA) and trail running on a regular basis (Trail runners).
| VARIABLES | ADEQUATE PA (n = 14) | TRAIL RUNNERS (n = 15) | t | p-VALUE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| MoCA (score) | 26.7 ± 2.1 | 27.7 ± 2.6 | 1.172 | 0.248 |
| MMSE (score) | 29.7 ± 0.5 | 29.9 ± 0.3 | 1.543 | 0.138 |
| 1-back reaction time (m/s) | 578 ± 88 | 577 ± 93 | 0.046 | 0.482 |
| SCWT congruence reaction time (m/s) | 789 ± 105 | 853 ± 56 | 2.037 | 0.055 |
| SCWT incongruence reaction time (m/s) | 857 ± 141 | 922 ± 173 | 1.057 | 0.301 |
[i] Data are means ± SD. MoCA = Montreal cognitive assessment; MMSE = Mini-Mental State Examination; SCWT = Stroop color and word test.
Figure 2
Cerebral blood velocity at baseline, after the 1-back and Stroop color and word test (SCWT) tasks of middle-aged male office workers who had been performing adequate amounts of physical activity (Adequate PA) and trail running on a regular basis (Trail runners).
*P < 0.05 vs. Adequate PA. †P < 0.05 vs baseline, #P < 0.05 vs after task. TAMV = time average mean blood velocity; PI = pulsatility index.
Discussion
The major findings of the present study are as follows. In comparison with middle-aged office workers with adequate physical activity, trail runners demonstrated greater muscular strength and cardiovascular fitness. Additionally, vascular function, as measured by arterial stiffness, endothelial function, and carotid intima-media thickness, were more favorable in the trail runners. However, no significant group differences were observed in cognitive functionor in cognitive task performance, as assessed by the 1-back and SCWT tasks. Collectively, these findings suggest that office workers who regularly perform trail running exhibit better health-related physical fitness and vascular function. However, these benefits did not extend to cognitive function or cognitive task performance.
In the physically active spectrum, office workers who engage in moderate physical activity and those who participate in high-intensity endurance activities such as trail running races present two distinct groups for comparison. The physical activity guidelines suggest that any physical activity is beneficial to physical health, with optimum health benefits achieved when accruing ≥150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week (the equivalent of ≥600 MET-.min/week) (WHO 2012). In the present study, mean physical activity levels of Adequate PA and Trail runners were 1,907 and 5,188 MET-.min/week, respectively. Thus, both groups exceeded the threshold physical activity levels indicated by the physical activity guidelines.
In comparison to Adequate PA, Trail runners exhibited higher endothelium-dependent vasodilation as assessed by brachial FMD, lower carotid artery wall thickness as measured by IMT, and reduced arterial stiffness as evaluated by baPWV. Levels of physical activity were modestly and significantly associated with flow-mediated dilation. These findings indicated that a greater volume of more strenuous physical activity, as represented by trail running, may be more effective than moderate levels of physical activity in improving peripheral vascular function in middle-aged office workers. The influence of vigorous physical activity on vascular health remains controversial as a detrimental impact have been reported on vascular health (Burr et al. 2014; Jouffroy et al. 2015). However, most of these adverse effects have been ascribed to an acute and transient phenomenon (Bonsignore et al. 2017). The trail runners who participated in this study had been training for short-distance rather than long-distance trail running. The precise mechanisms by which vigorous intensity physical activity exerts a greater effect on arterial vascular function are unknown. However, improvements in endothelial function are often intensity-dependent (Pressler et al., 2017) and can be attributed to the increased release of vasoactive substances, such as NO, which promote vascular tone relaxation. Furthermore, an increase in antioxidant defenses and a reduction in sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity may also be implicated (Suntraluck et al. 2017; Mitranun et al. 2014).
Elevated levels of physical activity can exert an influence on brain function, at least in part, through an acute physiological response, which has been demonstrated to result in improved cognitive function (Falck et al. 2017; Tanaka et al. 2019). In the present study, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of the MoCA score, 1-back reaction time, SCWT congruence, and incongruence reaction time. Both groups showed no evidence of cognitive impairment, as indicated by a MoCA score of at least 25. These results can be interpreted that moderate levels of physical activity may be sufficient to exert positive impacts on cognition. Alternatively, one may argue that a lack of group differences might have been due to the inclusion of participants who performed a mind-body exercise of yoga. However, the number of yoga practitioners was small (n = 2), and the inclusion and the exclusion of these participants did not have any impact on the overall conclusion. The influence of vigorous exercise on cognition is of particular interest as high-intensity exercise increases arousal levels beyond the optimal level and leads to a temporary reduction in cognitive performance (Sudo et al. 2022). Acutely, ultra-trail running is associated with cognitive performance impairments (Bonsignore et al. 2017). It can be posited that cognitive dysfunction may occur during and after ultra-trail running races, but that such occurrences are transient and not observed in the prolonged effects of high-intensity aerobic exercise training and short-distance trail running race participation.
We employed cerebral blood flow velocity measurements of the middle cerebral artery before and after the 1-back and SCWT tasks, as inhibition control and working memory are highly demanded skills for office workers. TAMV was significantly higher after the SCWT task, and PI was significantly greater after the 1-back and SCWT tasks in both groups. Those cognitive task-related changes in cerebral blood flow velocity may be due to neural activation triggering a regional increase in oxygenated hemoglobin to meet the increased metabolic demand required to solve the task (Herold et al. 2018). Our results demonstrated that the Trail runners had significantly lower PI after the 1-back and SCWT tasks than Adequate PA. The present findings suggest that regular trail running training constitutes a suitable health intervention for office workers, with the potential to enhance cerebrovascular health.
It is important to highlight the limitations of the present study. First, the number of participants included in the study was relatively small. Second, only male office workers were studied. Third, the study did not include a control group of individuals who were sedentary and spent a significant amount of time seated with minimal physical activity. Fourth, physical activity levels were self-reported in a questionnaire. The potential biases, including recall bias, social desirability bias, and possible over- or underestimation of activity levels, have been identified in the literature (Althubaiti 2016). To mitigate these limitations, future research should consider incorporating objective measurement tools, such as accelerometers or wearable activity trackers, to complement self-reported data and enhance validity. Most importantly, the present study is a cross-sectional observation. Future exercise intervention research with extended follow-up periods is required to explore the impacts of different physical activity levels on peripheral and cerebrovascular health and cognitive function. In addition, the incorporation of biomarkers of neural function, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and inflammatory markers, may enhance the understanding of underlying physiological mechanisms. Finally, the investigation of the role of individualized exercise prescriptions based on age, sex, fitness level, and health conditions could contribute to the optimization of exercise interventions for the preservation of cognitive health and the prevention of disease.
Conclusion
The primary findings of the present study suggest that trail runners demonstrate higher physical fitness and indicators of improved vascular function compared with office workers who engage in adequate physical activity. However, these advantages were not associated with significant differences in cognitive task performance or reaction times.
Data Accessibility Statement
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics and Consents
All experiments were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Chulalongkorn University, and the informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to all the volunteers who participated in the study and to Ms. Tunyakarn Worasettawat for her invaluable assistance in the laboratory.
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.