Table 1
Quantitative research instruments.
| INSTRUMENT | MEASUREMENT | CATEGORIES/SUBSCALES | RELIABILITY OF THIS STUDY |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Activity: The International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF) | Self-reporting questionnaire. Measured PA across seven days which consists of seven items that focus on weekly time spent in vigorous-intensity activity, moderate-intensity activity and walking. PA levels were quantified using the metabolic equivalent of task (MET) – reported as MET-min/week (Manuela & Gheorghe, 2020) | Category 1: inactive (low activity level), category 2: minimally active (moderate activity level) and category 3: health-enhancing PA (HEPA) (high activity level) | Test-retest scores for vigorous-intensity PA (0.85), moderate-intensity PA (0.86), walking (0.77), and sitting (0.76). |
| Preferences: Preferred Physical Activity Questionnaire | Self-reporting questionnaire. Measured PA preferences (Onagbiye, Moss & Cameron, 2017) and consisted of six multiple-choice questions, focusing on preferred PA type and time of day. The questionnaire was adapted, where one question was a multiple-choice question (preferred PA time) and the second question was open-ended (preferred PA type). | PA type was categorised into three groups based on previous research (Caspersen, Powell and Christenson, 1985; Nelson et al., 2007; Hsu et al., 2022): (1) endurance (2), strength and (3) flexibility and balance activities. | Not applicable |
| Mental Health: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale – 21 | Self-reporting scale. A quantitative measure of distress (Coker, Coker & Sanni, 2018) that assesses three separate but interrelated subscales, namely depression, anxiety and stress within a week. Each subscale is assessed on a 4-point Likert scale (0–3) where “0” signifies “did not apply” and “3” indicates “very much or most of the time”. | Depression, anxiety and stress. | Cronbach Alphas scores were for depression (0.909), anxiety (0.856) and stress (0.870). |
| Motivation: Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale | Self-reporting questionnaire. The original tool consisted of a 5-point Likert scale (1–5): 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree. For this study, the Likert scale was adapted to a 4-point scale. This scale was adapted to reduce vagueness when answering a particular statement by removing the “neutral” option. | Consisted of 40 items with eight subscales, such as (1) mastery, (2) physical condition, (3) affiliation, (4) psychological condition, (5) appearance, (6) others’ expectations, (7) enjoyment and (8) competition/ego. | Cronbach Alphas results were for mastery (0.825), physical condition (0.886), affiliation (0.823), psychological condition (0.869), appearance (0.868), others’ expectations (0.754), enjoyment (0.854) and competition/ego (0.832). |
[i] Note: Met = Metabolic Equivalent, PA = Physical Activity.
Table 2
Sociodemographic information of quantitative and qualitative participants.
| VARIABLE | QUANTITATIVE (n = 534) | QUALITATIVE (n = 18) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 21.11 (SD = 2.71) | 21.00 (SD = 1.37) | |
| n (%) | n (%) | ||
| Sex | Male | 248 (46.4) | 6 (33.3) |
| Female | 286 (53.6) | 12 (66.7) | |
| Faculty | Community and Health Sciences | 143 (26.8) | 8 (44.4) |
| Education | 83 (15.5) | 3 (16.7) | |
| Arts and Humanities | 72 (13.5) | 2 (11.1) | |
| Economic and Management Sciences | 69 (12.9) | 3 (16.7) | |
| Natural Sciences | 67 (12.5) | 1 (5.6) | |
| Law | 52 (9.7) | 1 (5.6) | |
| Dentistry | 48 (9.0) | 0 (0) | |
| Year of Study | 1 | 206 (38.6) | 2 (11.1) |
| 2 | 150 (28.1) | 6 (33.3) | |
| 3 | 105 (19.7) | 6 (33.3) | |
| 4 | 64 (12.0) | 4 (22.2) | |
| 5 | 9 (1.7) | 0 (0) | |
| Residence | Lives on campus | 54 (10.1) | 3 (16.7) |
| Lives off campus | 495 (89.9) | 15 (83.3) | |
[i] Note: SD = Standard Deviation.
Table 3
Physical activity levels, mental health indicators and motivational factors among undergraduate students.
| CATEGORY | SUBCATEGORY | MEAN | STANDARD DEVIATION |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical activity | Sedentary behaviour (minutes per day) | 247.72 | 170.29 |
| Walking (MET minutes per week) | 1077.32 | 1440.65 | |
| Moderate PA (MET minutes per week) | 446.20 | 840.29 | |
| Vigorous PA (MET minutes per week) | 1275.13 | 1948.54 | |
| Mental health | Depression | 8.39 | 6.30 |
| Anxiety | 8.35 | 5.76 | |
| Stress | 9.07 | 5.80 | |
| Motivation | Mastery | 14.16 | 3.70 |
| Physical Condition | 15.40 | 3.89 | |
| Affiliation | 12.60 | 3.67 | |
| Psychological Condition | 15.29 | 3.73 | |
| Appearance | 14.47 | 3.92 | |
| Others’ Expectations | 10.58 | 3.66 | |
| Enjoyment | 14.43 | 3.72 | |
| Competition/ Ego | 10.91 | 3.74 |
[i] Note: MET = Metabolic Equivalent of Task, PA = Physical Activity.
Table 4
Joint display of questionnaire results and interview findings.
| QUESTIONNAIRE | STATISTICS | INTERVIEW DATA EXTRACT | THEME |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Activity | |||
| IPAQ-SF subscales: Vigorous – intensity Moderate – intensity Walking Sitting time | Almost a third of undergraduate students were inactive (29%), 31.1% were minimally active, and 39.9% were in the health-enhancing PA (HEPA) category. | “A lot are a bit sedentary because I mean if it’s during semester time, no one will be thinking, my gosh let me go for a run”- Yonela (Female) | Sedentary behaviour |
| “Most students, they just go university and go back to their rooms to finish off the class notes and everything and then watch Netflix and sleep, and relax”- Vuyo (Female) | |||
| “We are generally sedentary because we have to study a lot, so, we’re sitting a lot”- Melissa (Female) | |||
| PPA-Q focusing on: Preferred PA time Preferred PA type | Questionnaire results indicated that 25.9% of participants preferred morning sessions (05:00–11:59), 24.3% preferred afternoon sessions (12:00–15:59) and 36.7% opted for evening sessions (16:00–23:59). Additionally, 13.1% indicated had no preferred time for activity. Findings indicated that 73.2% of students preferred endurance exercises, while only 7.1% preferred strength training. Additionally, 6.7% of respondents preferred activities that focus on flexibility and balance, while 13.0% had no specific preference for a type of activity. | “During my off periods and then in the evening, and if there’s no classes or anything, then I’ll just get everything done in the morning.” Lauren (Female) | PA Preferences |
| “I walk to school four times a week, in the morning and after so that’s the minimum” – Jarrod (Male) | |||
| “I do all my body parts. Monday, it’s chest and shoulder and tricep. And then on Tuesday, it’s back, my biceps, and then my shoulder again. Then Wednesday it’s legs and back and then again recite everything on Thursday and Friday.” – Unathi (Male) | |||
| Motivation | |||
| PALMS subscales: Mastery Physical condition Affiliation Psychological condition Appearance Other’s expectation Enjoyment Competition/ego | Appearance – Item 23 The majority of students strongly agreed (35.4%) or agreed (38.4%) that motivation to engage in PA stemmed from a desire to enhance body shape. | “Having lean legs. That’s the motivation.”- Nosi (Female) | Improve appearance |
| Appearance – Item 32 Survey results indicated that students strongly agreed (30%) and agreed (38.4%) that motivation to participate in PA stemmed from the desire to improve their appearance. | “You always want to reach the next level, so you always have to be fit so that motivates you. Sometimes you are not always happy with how your body is, so you always want to try to make yourself better.”- Lauren (Female) | ||
| Psychological condition – Item 22 Students strongly agreed (37.5%) and agreed (38.2%) that motivation to participate in PA was due to the stress release gained from regular engagement. | “All my stresses and all the stuff, it’s one or two hours when we’re at practice, we’re at a game that I don’t think about life and everything life-related and sort of let out my stresses”- Vuyo (Female) | Mindset and mental health | |
| Psychological condition – Item 35 Survey results revealed that students strongly agreed (36.9%) and agreed (40.4%) that PA helped students to take their minds off things. | “I have to be physically active, do something, take a jog, run, walk, or do anything just to be outside so I can clear my mind. And when I come back, I know my mind will be clear and I’ll be able to study again”- Zizi (Female) | ||
| Affiliation – Item 4 Students were in strong agreement (24.3%) and in agreement (39%) that motivation to partake in PA stemmed from the enjoyment gained from spending time with others. | “My peer group and also my friends are athletes. So, they actually, encouraged me as well to stay fit. And when I’m seeing the benefits of physical activity, it feels great to see a change in your body.”- Craig (Male) | Group interaction (extrinsic) | |
| Affiliation – Item 20 The majority of students disagreed (37.5%) that PA participation was not based on doing something in common with peers. However, a large number of students agreed (30.9%) that it was due to doing something in common with friends. | “I had a friend, that is like, we need to be active”- Thando (Female) | ||
| Enjoyment – Item 13 The majority of participants, accounting for 74.6% overall, indicated that the primary reason for their participation in PA was the pursuit of happiness, with 37.1% strongly agreeing and 37.5% in agreement. | “I have to talk to my inner self and just decide to go back to the gym because it’s up to me”- Vuyo (Female) | Individual (Intrinsic) | |
| Enjoyment – Item 37 Students reported that they engage in PA because they enjoy it, with 39.7% in agreement and 25.5% in disagreement. | “I’m not someone who likes to engage in other things. I’m someone who likes their own company, most of the time. My friends have come to understand that. So, the gym is part of the activities that help me to be by myself and to do something that I love.”- Unathi (Male) | ||
| Mastery – Item 16 Enhancing existing skills was indicated as a motivation for participating in PA by participants, with 29.6% strongly agreeing and 37.8% agreeing. | “When you set out goals for yourself in a season, along with your coaching staff and your training staff, and you set out those goals that you want to achieve, especially coming off a bad season one can be quite hungry to just put the work in focus and then reap the rewards”- Joshua (Male) | Strategies and goals | |
| Mastery – Item 19 Striving to achieve one’s personal best emerged as a motivational factor for engagement in PA, with 29.6% strongly agreeing and 39.5% agreeing. | “Self-reliance on my own motivation because I know my goals”- Jarrod (Male) | ||
| Physical condition – Item 28 Among participants, 41.9% strongly agreed and 33.3% agreed that maintaining health was a motivational factor. | “Just to remain healthy, as it helps with sickness.”- Lutho (Male) | Maintaining health | |
| Physical condition – Item 33 Of the students, 39.9% agreed and 34.5% strongly agreed that improving cardiovascular fitness was a motivational factor for PA participation. | “It helps to put more oxygen in my brain, and then it reduces my stress. So, anything that has to do with cardio exercises, I think would be fitness because it helps with your breathing”- Unathi (Male) | Health benefits | |
| Other’s expectation – Item 18 Participants disagreed (32.8%) and agreed (31.1%) that looking after their medical condition through PA participation was a motivational factor. | “I have stomach ulcers and then I am maintaining my body, with what I eat and things. But I’m not doing anything to get healthier and I’m not dedicated to the gym, the only thing that I can think of is walking. So, I try to walk every day” – Joe (Male) | Health condition | |
| Other’s expectation – Item 21 Responses indicated that 37.5% strongly disagreed and 33.7% disagreed that other people’s expectations enabled PA motivation. | “People to keep you accountable because if it’s just you by yourself, it’s easy to convince yourself not to do something”- Lisa (Female) | Accountability | |
| Competition/Ego – Item 29 Participants disagreed (35.9%) and strongly disagreed (29.8%) that competing with other individuals was a PA motivator. | “It’s not comparing yourself to anyone else. It’s your journey so you can’t because everyone has a different body type and different genetics and so if someone is looking amazing, and you’ve been going at it for years, your body takes time, everyone’s different. So don’t compare yourself to others.”- Jarrod (Male) | Competition | |
| Competition/Ego – Item 27 Students disagreed (39.7%) and strongly disagreed (27.2%) that working harder than others to be physically active was a motivational factor. | “With myself, I think you always want to reach the next level.” – Lauren (Female) | Hard work | |
| Mental Health | |||
| DASS- 21 subscales: Depression Anxiety Stress | Depression: Among participants, 33.3% reported experiencing depression at a normal level, while 23.2% described their depression as extremely severe. | “Physical activity helps alleviate some symptoms of depression and stress. It also keeps your mind in a healthy state, whether you’re in exam, period, or academic calendar, it just helps balance out your life, so you’re not just swamped by work, you have an outlet.”- Jarrod (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism |
| “When you are mentally healthy, it’s when you can deal with what you’re going through, and like, get through it, and you’re still able to live life, and you’re still able to put a smile on your face, doesn’t matter how difficult the thing is that you’re going through.”- Melissa (Female) | Influence of PA on mental health – Sense of accomplishment | ||
| “Low self-esteem, and depression, could also stop you from being physically active. Depression could cause someone to lay in the bed whole day. Depression could cause someone to lock themselves up in a room and not want to go out. That person’s not physically active.”- Melissa (Female) | Influence of mental health on PA – Self-esteem and confidence | ||
| Anxiety: Regarding anxiety, the questionnaire results indicated that 24.3% of respondents reported experiencing anxiety at a normal level, while a significant 40.6% described their anxiety as extremely severe. | “I have depression and a little bit of anxiety. I have functioning depression. So, I think having an outlet to do certain stuff even if it’s just walking somewhere or doing stuff like anything, I think it’s very important because that kind of slows your mind or likes calms yourself.”- Gabby (Female) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism | |
| “Depression, for example, I don’t feel like getting out of bed, I don’t feel like doing anything today, that plays a role in you being physically, active. Then, maybe something like having anxiety could prevent you from being out there.”- Lisa (Female) | Influence of mental health on physical activity – Mindset | ||
| Stress: Results indicated that 43.1% of participants reported experiencing normal levels of stress, while 16.7% described their stress as moderate. | “Physical activity is a release for stress. Then you can use physical activity to manage your stress in a positive way to reap benefits.”- Craig (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism | |
| “Doing exercise or physical activity, does it reduce your stress, and therefore, if you reduce your stress, you’re a bit more clear-minded.”- Joshua (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Stress reduction, relaxation, and calmness | ||
[i] Note: DASS-21 = Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale – 21; HEPA = Health Enhancing Physical Activity; IPAQ-SF = International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form; PA = Physical Activity; PALMS = Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale; PPA-Q = Preferred Physical Activity Questionnaire.
Table 5
Physical activity facilitators and barriers.
| THEME | SUBTHEME | INTERVIEW DATA EXTRACT |
|---|---|---|
| Facilitators | Social support from family and friends | “Youths are more likely to be active when they are in the company of peers and friends than when they are alone”. – Thandi (Female) “In a group setting, I think that’s what’s enjoyable, that as a group you guys have similar goals. So, you motivate one another to attain or reach those goals”. – Craig (Male) “When someone pushes me like I said, my mom, then I’ll do it, like having that constant push, constant motivation, constant speech”. – Thandi (Female) “My brother, he’s also very active, in a lot of physical activity and he encourages us”. – Thando (Female) |
| Support from social media | “Seeing the entire journey on social media could drive you and motivate you to want to kind of achieve the same thing”. – Lauren (Female) “It’s nice when you see someone who looks like you and eats like you and healthily gets to where they want to be or just enjoy being active”. – Jessie (Female) | |
| Recognition from others | “When you are taking part in physical activity, on an individual level, as soon as you start feeling that change or you’re very confident in what you’re doing, then people start complementing ‘we haven’t seen this type of glow within you or from you before’”. – Craig (Male) | |
| Barriers | Lack of knowledge | “A lack of knowledge of what they can do”. – Yonela (Female) “They don’t know, like if you have to join the gym, what posture helps with getting optimal benefits.”. – Craig (Male) “People don’t understand the importance of warming up and cooling down. So definitely, they would need to be educated”. – Melissa (Female) |
| Time constraints | “Busy schedule academically. I still have to go to the gym and fit that into my schedule. It’s taking up time when I could be finishing something else”. – Lisa (Female) “We have a lot of time constraints and some of the courses are very, very tough”. – Craig (Male) “Sometimes difficult to have a balance between work studying and trying to do physical activity”. – Joe (Male) | |
| Financial constraints | “I can’t afford to go to a gym”. – Gabby (Female) “I wasn’t financially stable to pay for the gym so I couldn’t go”. – Vuyo (Male) | |
| Lack of self-esteem and judgement | “People don’t necessarily feel comfortable being active around other people”. – Jarrod (Male) “Being self-conscious of your body and not wanting other people to judge you”. – Nosi (Female) “I’m constantly comparing myself to other girls looking better than me”. – Melissa (Female) | |
| Laziness | “Laziness. Students are just not interested in anything related to physical activity. They don’t care”. – Thando (Female) “Students are lazy, we’re lazy”. – Zizi (Female) | |
| Academic commitments | “People just go to classes, go eat and sleep, and repeat the next day”. – Yonela (Female) “The daily life of students is very busy. I have to say, we’re not actually that active because it’s a lot of academic commitments”. – Craig (Male) |