Introduction
Young adults, such as undergraduate university students, should participate in an adequate amount of physical activity (PA) to prevent the onset of chronic illnesses (WHO 2020). However, PA participation among some students is insufficient to maintain an active lifestyle (Bareeqa et al. 2018). A Canadian study reported that university students are physically inactive and are not meeting the recommended PA guidelines (Bertrand et al. 2021; Burton, Barber & Khan 2021). This may be alluded to a previous systematic review which reported that a considerable proportion of university students engage in disproportionate amounts of sedentary time, spending on average seven hours per day sitting (Castro et al. 2020). Similarly, a recent study found that approximately half (49%) of undergraduate Canadian students were sedentary (Pellerine et al. 2022). Thus, to explore the factors contributing to physical inactivity, researchers have shifted their focus to unravelling the intricacies of individual behaviour, particularly aspects related to mental health and motivation (Dėdelė, Chebotarova & Miškinytė 2022).
In terms of individual behaviour, a personal factor that stimulates and maintains engagement in PA is motivation (Pérez-de la Cruz et al. 2022). A South African study reported that university students displayed motivation for self-improvement that was guided by goal setting and incentives (Van Breda 2017). However, the lack of motivation among university students to be physically active has consistently been studied, due to the increase in sedentary lifestyles (Gómez-López, Gallegos & Extremera 2010; Sáez, Solabarrieta & Rubio 2021). This was suggested by another study among university students from Pakistan which reported that a lack of motivation and willpower negatively impacted leisure-time PA (Ishaq & Rafıque 2020). It is, therefore, important to understand the motivational determinants that influence or hinder PA participation. One aspect that may influence PA motivation is mental health (Melguizo-Ibáñez et al. 2023).
The prevention and treatment of mental health disorders have been described as a fundamental component of overall well-being (WHO 2022). However, depression, anxiety and stress have been classified as public health concerns in developing countries (Coker, Coker & Sanni, 2018) and among undergraduate university students (Lu et al. 2021; Ro, Rodriguez & Enriquez 2021; Rogowska et al. 2020). Although a previous study conducted in China reported that psychiatric disorders were common in the adult population, little information is available regarding undergraduate students’ mental health concerns (Liu, Ping & Gao, 2019). A study focusing on sub-Saharan African undergraduate university students revealed high rates of stress and anxiety, with 48.2% of students identified as experiencing depression (Croock et al. 2023). Therefore, mental health challenges continue to be prevalent among undergraduate university students. Amidst these prevalent mental health challenges among undergraduate university students, it’s noteworthy that the PA preferences of students should be explored (Alkhateeb et al. 2019).
The PA preferences of university students invariably change during their university journey (Alkhateeb et al. 2019). According to previous studies conducted in Pakistan, Germany, Spain and Malaysia, university students encounter numerous PA barriers that may limit their participation, such as a lack of time, high study workload, study fatigue (Ishaq & Rafıque 2020), the transition from high school to university (Hilger-Kolb, Loerbroks & Diehl 2020) and a lack of social support and motivation (Gómez-López, Gallegos & Extremera 2010; Othman et al. 2022). However, a strong social support network from peers and family is considered a facilitator of PA and may enhance participation among students (Alshehri et al. 2021; Sáez, Solabarrieta & Rubio 2021). Additional facilitators that have been commonly explored include outdoor facilities on campus, on-campus programmes that students enjoy and that facilitate recovery from an exhausting university day, and easily accessible recreational resources (Hilger-Kolb, Loerbroks & Diehl 2020).
Most studies in the extant literature emerge from high-income countries with relatively few focusing on university students in low- and middle-income countries, such as South Africa (Onagbiye & Bester 2022; Rousseau et al. 2021). Additionally, studies on PA barriers and facilitators as experienced by university students are scarce (Von Sommoggy et al. 2020). Therefore, more evidence is needed to understand the influences of personal factors, such as PA preferences, facilitators, barriers, mental health and motivation, on PA participation among undergraduate students from a South African university. Taking this into consideration, this study employed a mixed-methods design to 1) examine PA levels, preferences, motivation and the mental health of undergraduate university students through a quantitative questionnaire and 2) explore the personal factors that influence PA levels through qualitative semi-structured interviews with undergraduate students from a South African university.
To address the identified gaps in the literature, this study employed a mixed-methodology research design, marking the first use of such an approach in this context. A sequential explanatory design was implemented, incorporating both questionnaires and in-depth semi-structured interviews. Consequently, mixed-methods research among undergraduate university students can not only identify key personal factors related to their PA engagement (quantitative) but also explore their experiences in these contexts (qualitative). This approach offers a more comprehensive, multimethod perspective compared to a design based exclusively on questionnaires or interviews (Cooper and Hall, 2016). By utilising a mixed-methodology approach, student-tailored interventions could be designed and implemented to enhance PA participation among undergraduate university students in South Africa.
Materials and Method
Study design and philosophical assumptions
This research was informed by a pragmatic perspective, which is characterised by using more than one method to achieve an understanding of a problem (Feilzer 2010). Pragmatism allows the researcher the opportunity to provide meaning to their research problem and questions, rather than addressing it within a silo (Feilzer 2010; Morgan 2007). This is particularly important as questionnaires often restrict participants from fully expressing complex thoughts or emotions, making it difficult to capture nuanced experiences and behaviours. By supplementing questionnaire results with qualitative methods such as interviews, researchers could gain deeper, more detailed insights into students’ personal perspectives, experiences, attitudes and behaviours. Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches offers a comprehensive and robust understanding of a complex phenomenon such as the personal factors that influence PA. Thus mixed-methodology research encapsulates both quantitative and qualitative methods of data inquiry to understand the research question, aims and objectives (Creswell 2006). This study employed a mixed-method explanatory sequential (two-phase) study design, with qualitative data (phase two) used to explain the quantitative results (phase one). The integration of methods occurred across the phases, where the collection and analysis of quantitative data informed the direction of the qualitative phase.
Study setting and participants
The research was conducted among undergraduate students from a university in the Western Cape, South Africa. This research focused on one university which allowed for a comprehensive investigation of personal factors influencing PA participation. For the quantitative study, convenience sampling was used to recruit undergraduate university students as a sample. This study included undergraduate students at a tertiary institution in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The undergraduate student cohort comprised an approximate population of 19,000 individuals. The power of 0.95 (95%) was calculated to obtain the sample size using Raosoft, Inc. (Raosoft, USA, version 7, 2004) software. A total of 375 undergraduate students was calculated as a suitable sample size. For the qualitative study, students were conveniently sampled as they had previously completed the questionnaire and had voluntarily signed up to participate in the interview process. Students were provided with an information sheet and those interested were asked to complete a written consent form. After providing consent, a date, time and location for the interviews were agreed upon with the participants. Withdrawal from participating in the study was permitted at any point. Participants were eligible only if 18 years and older, if a full-time registered student and if they provided written consent. Participants were excluded if they were younger than 18 years old, registered for part-time and semester courses only, or no written consent was provided. The names of participants were pseudonymised to maintain anonymity.
Phase 1: Quantitative
Questionnaire instruments
The quantitative inquiry involved a cross-sectional design. Quantitative data presented in this study were gathered from a larger study that delved into the PA levels and psychosocial factors of undergraduate university students (Johannes et al. 2024). For this study, data from the PA preferences, mental health and motivation sections of the questionnaire were further explored, as these determinants of human behaviour are associated with personal factors that influence PA participation (Espernberger, Fini & Peiris 2021) (Table 1).
Table 1
Quantitative research instruments.
| INSTRUMENT | MEASUREMENT | CATEGORIES/SUBSCALES | RELIABILITY OF THIS STUDY |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Activity: The International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF) | Self-reporting questionnaire. Measured PA across seven days which consists of seven items that focus on weekly time spent in vigorous-intensity activity, moderate-intensity activity and walking. PA levels were quantified using the metabolic equivalent of task (MET) – reported as MET-min/week (Manuela & Gheorghe, 2020) | Category 1: inactive (low activity level), category 2: minimally active (moderate activity level) and category 3: health-enhancing PA (HEPA) (high activity level) | Test-retest scores for vigorous-intensity PA (0.85), moderate-intensity PA (0.86), walking (0.77), and sitting (0.76). |
| Preferences: Preferred Physical Activity Questionnaire | Self-reporting questionnaire. Measured PA preferences (Onagbiye, Moss & Cameron, 2017) and consisted of six multiple-choice questions, focusing on preferred PA type and time of day. The questionnaire was adapted, where one question was a multiple-choice question (preferred PA time) and the second question was open-ended (preferred PA type). | PA type was categorised into three groups based on previous research (Caspersen, Powell and Christenson, 1985; Nelson et al., 2007; Hsu et al., 2022): (1) endurance (2), strength and (3) flexibility and balance activities. | Not applicable |
| Mental Health: Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale – 21 | Self-reporting scale. A quantitative measure of distress (Coker, Coker & Sanni, 2018) that assesses three separate but interrelated subscales, namely depression, anxiety and stress within a week. Each subscale is assessed on a 4-point Likert scale (0–3) where “0” signifies “did not apply” and “3” indicates “very much or most of the time”. | Depression, anxiety and stress. | Cronbach Alphas scores were for depression (0.909), anxiety (0.856) and stress (0.870). |
| Motivation: Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale | Self-reporting questionnaire. The original tool consisted of a 5-point Likert scale (1–5): 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree. For this study, the Likert scale was adapted to a 4-point scale. This scale was adapted to reduce vagueness when answering a particular statement by removing the “neutral” option. | Consisted of 40 items with eight subscales, such as (1) mastery, (2) physical condition, (3) affiliation, (4) psychological condition, (5) appearance, (6) others’ expectations, (7) enjoyment and (8) competition/ego. | Cronbach Alphas results were for mastery (0.825), physical condition (0.886), affiliation (0.823), psychological condition (0.869), appearance (0.868), others’ expectations (0.754), enjoyment (0.854) and competition/ego (0.832). |
[i] Note: Met = Metabolic Equivalent, PA = Physical Activity.
The validity and reliability of the instruments used in our study have indeed been investigated across different cultural backgrounds. For example, the IPAQ-SF was validated among university students in Cyprus where the lowest score was 0.70 and the highest score was 0.88 (Tinazci, Alrefai & Musa, 2019). Similarly, the DASS-21 exhibited high reliability among university students in China (0.94) (Zhang et al., 2022). Additionally, the PALMS was validated among students residing in the Netherlands, where it was indicated that Cronbach alpha scores were for mastery (0.79), enjoyment (0.88), psychological condition (0.87), physical condition (0.89), appearance (0.89), others’ expectations (0.51), affiliation (0.92) and competition/ego (0.87) (Van Lankveld, Linskens & Stolwijk, 2021). Therefore, these findings support the robustness and cross-cultural applicability of the instruments utilised in this study.
Data collection process
An online questionnaire was developed using the Google Forms platform. Permission was secured from the university to distribute the questionnaire via an online link through the university communication email channel. Student emails were filtered to include only full-time undergraduate students. Between September and November 2022, participants responded to an email sent to their university-affiliated email addresses where information regarding the study was provided with an invitation to participate voluntarily. Three reminder emails were sent to the undergraduate student population in order to gain a greater response rate. Page one of the questionnaire contained the informed consent, procedures, potential risks and benefits. Participant anonymity and confidentiality were ensured, where no student-identifying information was requested. Participants provided their informed consent by clicking the “continue to page 2” button where the questionnaire began. The online questionnaire was completed by 189 students.
Hard-copy questionnaires were distributed in the student cafeteria as a second recruitment method to increase the response rate. Two research assistants were briefed by the primary researcher regarding the objectives of the study and the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the recruitment process. Hard-copy distributions were conducted across five days to obtain a greater response rate. Students were required to create a unique identification code for the researchers to remove duplicates between the hard-copy and online questionnaires. A total of 450 hard-copy questionnaires were distributed throughout the student cafeteria to eligible participants. The student cafeteria was a convenient location to recruit students as it is a high-traffic zone. Three hundred and sixty-two (362) hard-copy questionnaires were returned. Fifteen (15) questionnaires were removed as participants did not provide consent. A total of 347 completed hard-copy questionnaires were obtained. A cumulative total of 536 responses were received from participants through the online and hard-copy recruitment process. After removing two duplicates between the online and hard-copy questionnaires, the final sample was n = 534 (overall response rate of 2.81%).
Statistical analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 29.0 (Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyse the quantitative data. Data were collected, coded and cleaned for errors using the double-entry method within Microsoft Excel (version 16, 2019). Descriptive analysis such as frequencies, means, standard deviations and percentages, were used to examine patterns and trends regarding PA levels, preferences, motivation and mental health among undergraduate students. The Shapiro–Wilks test was utilised to test for the normality of distribution in the data.
Phase 2: Qualitative
Interview instrument
The interview schedule was based on the quantitative data and made use of open-ended questions. Questions focused on PA preferences (i.e. Do you regard yourself to be a physically fit person? Yes, how often would you say you are physically active?), barriers (i.e. What barriers would hinder a student from being physically active?), facilitators (i.e. What would facilitate PA engagement?), mental health (i.e. Do you think mental health is important to engage in physical activity? Why?) and motivation (i.e. What role do you think motivation plays in terms of being physically active?).
Data collection process
The interview process was conducted in English via the Google Meet platform, which is the teaching language of the university. Eighteen (n = 18) interviews of about an hour were completed between July 2023 and August 2023. This time frame allowed participants to elaborate on their responses and provide pertinent experiences. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted by the primary researcher based on existing PA literature and quantitative findings. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, where it was emphasised that participation was voluntary. Permission to use audio recording was requested. With the participant’s consent, interviews were recorded. After the eighteenth interview, saturation had been reached as no new information was forthcoming. Following the transcription of interview sessions by the primary researcher, each transcript was electronically emailed to the respective participant, to review the accuracy of the information presented and to supplement any details that might have been overlooked during the interview. Participants were requested to validate the transcript and confirm the information. Three reminder emails were sent weekly to remind participants to contact the primary researcher to confirm their transcript. Once confirmation was provided, the data analysis phase commenced.
Data analysis
A reflexive thematic analysis approach was employed for this study to explore similarities and differences within and across interviews (Braun & Clarke 2006, 2019). An inductive approach was used and the outcomes of the analysis were solely data-driven, instead of being guided by previous work or theory (Braun & Clarke 2021). Interview recordings were transcribed verbatim by the first author and uploaded to the Atlas Ti. V8 software. Participant’s names were removed and replaced with pseudonyms. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns within and across data regarding the participants’ lived experiences and perspectives (Clarke & Braun 2017). Therefore, a thematic analysis was employed. According to Vaismoradi and colleagues (2016), four phases guide the development of qualitative themes, namely initialisation, construction, rectification and finalisation (Vaismoradi et al., 2016). These phases were utilised to guide the thematic analysis of the current study. Firstly, initialisation involved reading the transcriptions and highlighting meaning units, coding and looking for abstractions in participants’ accounts and writing reflective notes. Secondly, construction focused on classifying the information, comparing the codes in terms of similarities and differences related to the research question and labelling codes to provide meaning to participants’ ideas. Thereafter the codes and themes were defined. Thirdly, rectification involved the researcher distancing themself from the data as a method of self-correcting and cyclic process, which provided the researcher an opportunity to move back and forth between the study method and findings to ensure congruence. Thereafter, once the theme was developed and the literature was studied, thematic statements were formulated that were linked to previous literature. Lastly, the finalisation phases involved the researcher providing a narration that described and connected the various themes and answered the study objectives. Thereafter, themes were drafted into a thematic table which was revised by the remaining authors. As a result, subthemes were merged based on being similar in context. The table was amended several times before finalising the main themes and subthemes. All authors agreed with the outcome of the final themes.
Data integration
Data integration was implemented at the interpretation and reporting stages of this study in two ways: integration through narrative and the use of a joint display (McCrudden & McTigue 2019). Integration through narrative occurs when the researcher describes the quantitative and qualitative results through a report style (Fetters, Curry & Creswell 2013). The findings of this study are described in a single report, where the quantitative and qualitative results are presented separately. The findings have been organised and integrated into a joint display where quantitative results and qualitative findings allow side-by-side comparisons in a table format to draw new insights about the topic (Guetterman, Fetters & Creswell 2015; Plano Clark 2019). This integration strategy allows for the research results to be easily understood by readers (Creswell & Hirose 2019; Plano Clark 2019).
Ethical approval
Ethics approval for this study was granted by the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at the University of the Western Cape, reference number: HS21/10/24, prior to the start of this investigation. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Results
Sociodemographic information
Table 2 shows the sociodemographic information of participants from the qualitative and quantitative phases. In the quantitative phase, 534 undergraduate students (53.6% female) participated. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 42 years, with a mean age of 21.11 (SD = 2.71) years. The majority of the students were enrolled in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (26.8%), in their first year of study (38.6%), and lived on campus (89.9%). For the qualitative phase, 12 females (66.7%) and 6 males (33.3%) participated in this study. Ages ranged from 19 to 24 years, with a mean age of 21 (SD = 1.37). The majority of students were enrolled in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (44.4%), in their second (33.3%) and third (33.3%) years of study and lived off campus (83.3%).
Table 2
Sociodemographic information of quantitative and qualitative participants.
| VARIABLE | QUANTITATIVE (n = 534) | QUALITATIVE (n = 18) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 21.11 (SD = 2.71) | 21.00 (SD = 1.37) | |
| n (%) | n (%) | ||
| Sex | Male | 248 (46.4) | 6 (33.3) |
| Female | 286 (53.6) | 12 (66.7) | |
| Faculty | Community and Health Sciences | 143 (26.8) | 8 (44.4) |
| Education | 83 (15.5) | 3 (16.7) | |
| Arts and Humanities | 72 (13.5) | 2 (11.1) | |
| Economic and Management Sciences | 69 (12.9) | 3 (16.7) | |
| Natural Sciences | 67 (12.5) | 1 (5.6) | |
| Law | 52 (9.7) | 1 (5.6) | |
| Dentistry | 48 (9.0) | 0 (0) | |
| Year of Study | 1 | 206 (38.6) | 2 (11.1) |
| 2 | 150 (28.1) | 6 (33.3) | |
| 3 | 105 (19.7) | 6 (33.3) | |
| 4 | 64 (12.0) | 4 (22.2) | |
| 5 | 9 (1.7) | 0 (0) | |
| Residence | Lives on campus | 54 (10.1) | 3 (16.7) |
| Lives off campus | 495 (89.9) | 15 (83.3) | |
[i] Note: SD = Standard Deviation.
Physical activity levels, mental health indicators and motivational factors
Table 3 displays the analysis of the means and standard deviations for PA levels, motivation and mental health. For PA, the mean walking activity was 1077.32 MET minutes per week (SD = 1440.65), moderate PA was 446.20 MET minutes per week (SD = 840.29) and vigorous PA was 1275.13 MET minutes per week (SD = 1948.54). The mean sedentary behaviour was 247.72 minutes per day (SD = 170.29). In terms of mental health outcomes, the mean score for depression was 8.39 (SD = 6.30), for anxiety was 8.35 (SD = 5.76) and for stress was 9.07 (SD = 5.80). Regarding motivation, various subcategories showed different mean scores with relatively low variability. Mastery had a mean score of 14.16 (SD = 3.70), physical condition scored 15.40 (SD = 3.89), and affiliation scored 12.60 (SD = 3.67). The psychological condition mean was 15.29 (SD = 3.73), appearance had a mean of 14.47 (SD = 3.92), and others’ expectations scored 10.58 (SD = 3.66). Enjoyment showed a mean of 14.43 (SD = 3.72) and competition/ego had a mean of 10.91 (SD = 3.74).
Table 3
Physical activity levels, mental health indicators and motivational factors among undergraduate students.
| CATEGORY | SUBCATEGORY | MEAN | STANDARD DEVIATION |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical activity | Sedentary behaviour (minutes per day) | 247.72 | 170.29 |
| Walking (MET minutes per week) | 1077.32 | 1440.65 | |
| Moderate PA (MET minutes per week) | 446.20 | 840.29 | |
| Vigorous PA (MET minutes per week) | 1275.13 | 1948.54 | |
| Mental health | Depression | 8.39 | 6.30 |
| Anxiety | 8.35 | 5.76 | |
| Stress | 9.07 | 5.80 | |
| Motivation | Mastery | 14.16 | 3.70 |
| Physical Condition | 15.40 | 3.89 | |
| Affiliation | 12.60 | 3.67 | |
| Psychological Condition | 15.29 | 3.73 | |
| Appearance | 14.47 | 3.92 | |
| Others’ Expectations | 10.58 | 3.66 | |
| Enjoyment | 14.43 | 3.72 | |
| Competition/ Ego | 10.91 | 3.74 |
[i] Note: MET = Metabolic Equivalent of Task, PA = Physical Activity.
Joint display of quantitative and qualitative data
Table 4 shows the subsequent findings that are synthesised by integrating data from both the quantitative questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The joint presentation of the integrated results are categorised under the following headings along with their themes in brackets: PA levels (sedentary behaviour), preferences (PA type and time), motivation (appearance, mindset, and mental health, extrinsic, intrinsic, strategies and goals, maintaining health, health benefits and conditions, accountability, competition, and hard work), and mental health (influence of PA on mental health – coping mechanism, sense of accomplishment, and stress reduction, relaxation and calmness, additionally, the influence of mental health on PA – self-esteem, confidence, and mindset was mentioned).
Table 4
Joint display of questionnaire results and interview findings.
| QUESTIONNAIRE | STATISTICS | INTERVIEW DATA EXTRACT | THEME |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Activity | |||
| IPAQ-SF subscales: Vigorous – intensity Moderate – intensity Walking Sitting time | Almost a third of undergraduate students were inactive (29%), 31.1% were minimally active, and 39.9% were in the health-enhancing PA (HEPA) category. | “A lot are a bit sedentary because I mean if it’s during semester time, no one will be thinking, my gosh let me go for a run”- Yonela (Female) | Sedentary behaviour |
| “Most students, they just go university and go back to their rooms to finish off the class notes and everything and then watch Netflix and sleep, and relax”- Vuyo (Female) | |||
| “We are generally sedentary because we have to study a lot, so, we’re sitting a lot”- Melissa (Female) | |||
| PPA-Q focusing on: Preferred PA time Preferred PA type | Questionnaire results indicated that 25.9% of participants preferred morning sessions (05:00–11:59), 24.3% preferred afternoon sessions (12:00–15:59) and 36.7% opted for evening sessions (16:00–23:59). Additionally, 13.1% indicated had no preferred time for activity. Findings indicated that 73.2% of students preferred endurance exercises, while only 7.1% preferred strength training. Additionally, 6.7% of respondents preferred activities that focus on flexibility and balance, while 13.0% had no specific preference for a type of activity. | “During my off periods and then in the evening, and if there’s no classes or anything, then I’ll just get everything done in the morning.” Lauren (Female) | PA Preferences |
| “I walk to school four times a week, in the morning and after so that’s the minimum” – Jarrod (Male) | |||
| “I do all my body parts. Monday, it’s chest and shoulder and tricep. And then on Tuesday, it’s back, my biceps, and then my shoulder again. Then Wednesday it’s legs and back and then again recite everything on Thursday and Friday.” – Unathi (Male) | |||
| Motivation | |||
| PALMS subscales: Mastery Physical condition Affiliation Psychological condition Appearance Other’s expectation Enjoyment Competition/ego | Appearance – Item 23 The majority of students strongly agreed (35.4%) or agreed (38.4%) that motivation to engage in PA stemmed from a desire to enhance body shape. | “Having lean legs. That’s the motivation.”- Nosi (Female) | Improve appearance |
| Appearance – Item 32 Survey results indicated that students strongly agreed (30%) and agreed (38.4%) that motivation to participate in PA stemmed from the desire to improve their appearance. | “You always want to reach the next level, so you always have to be fit so that motivates you. Sometimes you are not always happy with how your body is, so you always want to try to make yourself better.”- Lauren (Female) | ||
| Psychological condition – Item 22 Students strongly agreed (37.5%) and agreed (38.2%) that motivation to participate in PA was due to the stress release gained from regular engagement. | “All my stresses and all the stuff, it’s one or two hours when we’re at practice, we’re at a game that I don’t think about life and everything life-related and sort of let out my stresses”- Vuyo (Female) | Mindset and mental health | |
| Psychological condition – Item 35 Survey results revealed that students strongly agreed (36.9%) and agreed (40.4%) that PA helped students to take their minds off things. | “I have to be physically active, do something, take a jog, run, walk, or do anything just to be outside so I can clear my mind. And when I come back, I know my mind will be clear and I’ll be able to study again”- Zizi (Female) | ||
| Affiliation – Item 4 Students were in strong agreement (24.3%) and in agreement (39%) that motivation to partake in PA stemmed from the enjoyment gained from spending time with others. | “My peer group and also my friends are athletes. So, they actually, encouraged me as well to stay fit. And when I’m seeing the benefits of physical activity, it feels great to see a change in your body.”- Craig (Male) | Group interaction (extrinsic) | |
| Affiliation – Item 20 The majority of students disagreed (37.5%) that PA participation was not based on doing something in common with peers. However, a large number of students agreed (30.9%) that it was due to doing something in common with friends. | “I had a friend, that is like, we need to be active”- Thando (Female) | ||
| Enjoyment – Item 13 The majority of participants, accounting for 74.6% overall, indicated that the primary reason for their participation in PA was the pursuit of happiness, with 37.1% strongly agreeing and 37.5% in agreement. | “I have to talk to my inner self and just decide to go back to the gym because it’s up to me”- Vuyo (Female) | Individual (Intrinsic) | |
| Enjoyment – Item 37 Students reported that they engage in PA because they enjoy it, with 39.7% in agreement and 25.5% in disagreement. | “I’m not someone who likes to engage in other things. I’m someone who likes their own company, most of the time. My friends have come to understand that. So, the gym is part of the activities that help me to be by myself and to do something that I love.”- Unathi (Male) | ||
| Mastery – Item 16 Enhancing existing skills was indicated as a motivation for participating in PA by participants, with 29.6% strongly agreeing and 37.8% agreeing. | “When you set out goals for yourself in a season, along with your coaching staff and your training staff, and you set out those goals that you want to achieve, especially coming off a bad season one can be quite hungry to just put the work in focus and then reap the rewards”- Joshua (Male) | Strategies and goals | |
| Mastery – Item 19 Striving to achieve one’s personal best emerged as a motivational factor for engagement in PA, with 29.6% strongly agreeing and 39.5% agreeing. | “Self-reliance on my own motivation because I know my goals”- Jarrod (Male) | ||
| Physical condition – Item 28 Among participants, 41.9% strongly agreed and 33.3% agreed that maintaining health was a motivational factor. | “Just to remain healthy, as it helps with sickness.”- Lutho (Male) | Maintaining health | |
| Physical condition – Item 33 Of the students, 39.9% agreed and 34.5% strongly agreed that improving cardiovascular fitness was a motivational factor for PA participation. | “It helps to put more oxygen in my brain, and then it reduces my stress. So, anything that has to do with cardio exercises, I think would be fitness because it helps with your breathing”- Unathi (Male) | Health benefits | |
| Other’s expectation – Item 18 Participants disagreed (32.8%) and agreed (31.1%) that looking after their medical condition through PA participation was a motivational factor. | “I have stomach ulcers and then I am maintaining my body, with what I eat and things. But I’m not doing anything to get healthier and I’m not dedicated to the gym, the only thing that I can think of is walking. So, I try to walk every day” – Joe (Male) | Health condition | |
| Other’s expectation – Item 21 Responses indicated that 37.5% strongly disagreed and 33.7% disagreed that other people’s expectations enabled PA motivation. | “People to keep you accountable because if it’s just you by yourself, it’s easy to convince yourself not to do something”- Lisa (Female) | Accountability | |
| Competition/Ego – Item 29 Participants disagreed (35.9%) and strongly disagreed (29.8%) that competing with other individuals was a PA motivator. | “It’s not comparing yourself to anyone else. It’s your journey so you can’t because everyone has a different body type and different genetics and so if someone is looking amazing, and you’ve been going at it for years, your body takes time, everyone’s different. So don’t compare yourself to others.”- Jarrod (Male) | Competition | |
| Competition/Ego – Item 27 Students disagreed (39.7%) and strongly disagreed (27.2%) that working harder than others to be physically active was a motivational factor. | “With myself, I think you always want to reach the next level.” – Lauren (Female) | Hard work | |
| Mental Health | |||
| DASS- 21 subscales: Depression Anxiety Stress | Depression: Among participants, 33.3% reported experiencing depression at a normal level, while 23.2% described their depression as extremely severe. | “Physical activity helps alleviate some symptoms of depression and stress. It also keeps your mind in a healthy state, whether you’re in exam, period, or academic calendar, it just helps balance out your life, so you’re not just swamped by work, you have an outlet.”- Jarrod (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism |
| “When you are mentally healthy, it’s when you can deal with what you’re going through, and like, get through it, and you’re still able to live life, and you’re still able to put a smile on your face, doesn’t matter how difficult the thing is that you’re going through.”- Melissa (Female) | Influence of PA on mental health – Sense of accomplishment | ||
| “Low self-esteem, and depression, could also stop you from being physically active. Depression could cause someone to lay in the bed whole day. Depression could cause someone to lock themselves up in a room and not want to go out. That person’s not physically active.”- Melissa (Female) | Influence of mental health on PA – Self-esteem and confidence | ||
| Anxiety: Regarding anxiety, the questionnaire results indicated that 24.3% of respondents reported experiencing anxiety at a normal level, while a significant 40.6% described their anxiety as extremely severe. | “I have depression and a little bit of anxiety. I have functioning depression. So, I think having an outlet to do certain stuff even if it’s just walking somewhere or doing stuff like anything, I think it’s very important because that kind of slows your mind or likes calms yourself.”- Gabby (Female) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism | |
| “Depression, for example, I don’t feel like getting out of bed, I don’t feel like doing anything today, that plays a role in you being physically, active. Then, maybe something like having anxiety could prevent you from being out there.”- Lisa (Female) | Influence of mental health on physical activity – Mindset | ||
| Stress: Results indicated that 43.1% of participants reported experiencing normal levels of stress, while 16.7% described their stress as moderate. | “Physical activity is a release for stress. Then you can use physical activity to manage your stress in a positive way to reap benefits.”- Craig (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Coping mechanism | |
| “Doing exercise or physical activity, does it reduce your stress, and therefore, if you reduce your stress, you’re a bit more clear-minded.”- Joshua (Male) | Influence of PA on mental health – Stress reduction, relaxation, and calmness | ||
[i] Note: DASS-21 = Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale – 21; HEPA = Health Enhancing Physical Activity; IPAQ-SF = International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form; PA = Physical Activity; PALMS = Physical Activity and Leisure Motivation Scale; PPA-Q = Preferred Physical Activity Questionnaire.
Table 5 shows the themes that emerged. Three themes (social support from family and friends, social media, and recognition from others) emerged as facilitators and six themes were forthcoming as barriers (lack of knowledge, time constraints, financial constraints, lack of self-esteem, and judgement, laziness, and academic commitments).
Table 5
Physical activity facilitators and barriers.
| THEME | SUBTHEME | INTERVIEW DATA EXTRACT |
|---|---|---|
| Facilitators | Social support from family and friends | “Youths are more likely to be active when they are in the company of peers and friends than when they are alone”. – Thandi (Female) “In a group setting, I think that’s what’s enjoyable, that as a group you guys have similar goals. So, you motivate one another to attain or reach those goals”. – Craig (Male) “When someone pushes me like I said, my mom, then I’ll do it, like having that constant push, constant motivation, constant speech”. – Thandi (Female) “My brother, he’s also very active, in a lot of physical activity and he encourages us”. – Thando (Female) |
| Support from social media | “Seeing the entire journey on social media could drive you and motivate you to want to kind of achieve the same thing”. – Lauren (Female) “It’s nice when you see someone who looks like you and eats like you and healthily gets to where they want to be or just enjoy being active”. – Jessie (Female) | |
| Recognition from others | “When you are taking part in physical activity, on an individual level, as soon as you start feeling that change or you’re very confident in what you’re doing, then people start complementing ‘we haven’t seen this type of glow within you or from you before’”. – Craig (Male) | |
| Barriers | Lack of knowledge | “A lack of knowledge of what they can do”. – Yonela (Female) “They don’t know, like if you have to join the gym, what posture helps with getting optimal benefits.”. – Craig (Male) “People don’t understand the importance of warming up and cooling down. So definitely, they would need to be educated”. – Melissa (Female) |
| Time constraints | “Busy schedule academically. I still have to go to the gym and fit that into my schedule. It’s taking up time when I could be finishing something else”. – Lisa (Female) “We have a lot of time constraints and some of the courses are very, very tough”. – Craig (Male) “Sometimes difficult to have a balance between work studying and trying to do physical activity”. – Joe (Male) | |
| Financial constraints | “I can’t afford to go to a gym”. – Gabby (Female) “I wasn’t financially stable to pay for the gym so I couldn’t go”. – Vuyo (Male) | |
| Lack of self-esteem and judgement | “People don’t necessarily feel comfortable being active around other people”. – Jarrod (Male) “Being self-conscious of your body and not wanting other people to judge you”. – Nosi (Female) “I’m constantly comparing myself to other girls looking better than me”. – Melissa (Female) | |
| Laziness | “Laziness. Students are just not interested in anything related to physical activity. They don’t care”. – Thando (Female) “Students are lazy, we’re lazy”. – Zizi (Female) | |
| Academic commitments | “People just go to classes, go eat and sleep, and repeat the next day”. – Yonela (Female) “The daily life of students is very busy. I have to say, we’re not actually that active because it’s a lot of academic commitments”. – Craig (Male) |
Discussion
Utilising a mixed method approach this study: 1) examined the PA levels, preferences, and prevalence of motivation and mental health and 2) explored the personal factors that influenced PA levels among undergraduate university students at an HDI in South Africa. Results highlighted that students’ personal factors influence PA engagement. In terms of PA levels, undergraduate students are not sufficiently active and thus are leading sedentary lifestyles. Regarding PA preferences, evening sessions emerged as the most preferred time slot, and endurance exercises were the most preferred type of activity. In terms of PA facilitators and barriers, social support and social media emerged as significant facilitators. Barriers to participation included a lack of knowledge about PA, time constraints due to academic commitments, financial limitations, laziness, and issues related to self-esteem and judgment. Regarding motivation, students were motivated to engage in PA primarily to improve their body shape, find happiness, and achieve their personal best. Lastly, mental health concerns such as depression and anxiety were prevalent.
Physical activity levels
Results from this study indicated that approximately a third (29%) of undergraduate university students were physically inactive and were not meeting the World Health Organization (WHO) PA recommendations (WHO 2020). These results are similar to previous studies where it was found that about one third of undergraduate students were inactive (Manuela & Gheorghe 2020) and South African students (33%) participated in low levels of PA (Pengpid et al. 2015). Another study found that among South African individuals, only 27.8% participated in vigorous activity (Mlangeni et al. 2018). However, based on the results derived from this study, students showed more favourable PA levels: 31.1% of students were minimally active and 39.9% engaged in vigorous PA. Although students were engaging in health-enhancing physical activities, a large proportion of students were physically inactive. This observation is concerning given the potential long-term implications on the health behaviours of students extending into adulthood (Herbert et al. 2020). The findings of this study revealed that academic pressures, sedentary leisure activities and a lack of PA prioritisation contributed to inactivity among students. Academic demands often lead students to prioritise studying over engaging in PA (Newsome et al. 2021), while sedentary leisure activities, such as watching television or using social media, further contribute to a sedentary lifestyle (Deliens et al. 2015). Moreover, despite awareness of the importance of being physically active, many students fail to prioritise this due to perceived barriers and a lack of motivation (Hilger-Kolb, Loerbroks & Diehl 2020). Addressing these factors requires comprehensive strategies that promote awareness of the benefits of PA (Thomas et al. 2019).
Physical activity preferences
Student preferences were classified according to the frequency, intensity, time and type (FITT) principle as suggested by previous authors (Adi 2021; Barisic, Leatherdale & Kreiger 2011). Frequency refers to how often an individual engages in physical activities within a week. Intensity indicates the difficulty of the activity. Time refers to the duration of the activities performed. Type relates to the mode of PA (for example, individual or group PA programmes) (Othman et al. 2022).
Regarding frequency, this study found that the minority of students opted out of PA entirely due to a lack of perceived need. Nevertheless, an equal number engaged in physical activities once or twice a week. Intensity preferences varied, with many students favouring low-intensity activities due to time constraints. These findings align with another study among Emirati university students which indicated that walking (66.7%) was the most preferred activity type, more specifically, females preferred activities such as aerobics, cycling, squash and yoga (Doyle, Khan & Burton, 2019). In terms of timing, students’ preferences varied across morning, afternoon or evening sessions, based on their academic schedules. The duration of preferences also varied, with almost half of respondents preferring sessions lasting more than 30 minutes, while others preferred shorter durations. Correspondingly, another study indicated that students chose to be physically active between 10 and 30 minutes per session whereas some preferred more than 30 minutes per activity session (Othman et al. 2022). Regarding PA type, some students preferred structured programmes focusing on specific activities or goals, such as strength training or cardio, whereas others preferred walking. Likewise, a previous study indicated that students preferred structured PA programmes with flexibility in terms of time and location (Othman et al. 2022). In addition, light or moderate-intensity PA for 10–30 minutes once or twice a week was preferred (Othman et al. 2022). Likewise, another study reported that the preference for scheduled activities may have stemmed from time constraints associated with academic demands. Moreover, students indicated that instructor-led activities, such as Zumba classes that include cardio, were the most preferred PA type (Burton, Barber & Khan 2021). However, PA barriers and facilitators may have influenced participation levels (Brown et al. 2024).
Facilitators and barriers
This study found that PA facilitators included social support from friends and family (for social interaction, providing motivation and encouragement), social media (for relatability and motivational purposes) and gaining recognition from others. This aligned with another study in which university students felt encouraged to engage in PA when their family and friends were present during the activity (Ndupu et al. 2023). In terms of social media, previous authors have indicated that social media usage by university students has been positively associated with motivation for PA participation and overall well-being (Goodyear et al. 2021; Sivakumar, Jayasingh & Shaik 2023). Many students use these platforms in their everyday lives and rely on social media sites for information related to health and PA (Al Ali et al. 2021). A study examining social networking sites and PA participation among university students found that most research participants used social media daily (96.6%) (Folk & Kovacs 2021). Thus, it is worthwhile to further investigate the role of social networking sites that could be used by universities to inform the design of future PA initiatives (Goodyear et al. 2021).
Concerning PA barriers, this study identified a range of factors hindering PA engagement that have been supported by previous authors (Dėdelė, Chebotarova & Miškinytė 2022). These included limited knowledge about PA, time constraints due to academic commitments, financial limitations, low self-esteem, judgement, tendencies towards laziness and a preference for prioritising academic commitments. These findings were consistent with another study that documented PA barriers among university students as including a lack of motivation, no time, no infrastructure, no friends, discrimination and the lack of finances for gym memberships (Dėdelė, Chebotarova & Miškinytė 2022). A systematic review of PA barriers among undergraduate students identified key barriers across 22 studies (Silva et al. 2022). Among these, the most prevalent barrier, cited in 50% of the studies, was a lack of time. In addition, 13.63% of the studies highlighted the challenge of inadequate social support, while another 13.63% focused on the lack of accessibility and lack of motivation (18.18%) (Silva et al. 2022). These findings are similar to those of the current study, therefore addressing these obstacles through educational resources, flexible scheduling, financial assistance and promoting a supportive campus culture could enhance PA participation levels (Sukys et al. 2019).
Motivation
Participants were motivated to engage in PA based on the desire to improve existing skills and to achieve their personal best. Undergraduate students further explained the importance of setting goals, personal and team-oriented activities and intrinsic motivation derived from self-reliance and knowing one’s goals. This was supported by another study which indicated that students who engage frequently in PA have greater intrinsic regulation (Sáez, Solabarrieta & Rubio 2021). Therefore, authors have suggested that students who are intrinsically motivated, demonstrate higher levels of commitment and dedication to regular participation in physical activities. Furthermore, students who are proactive in setting and pursuing their PA goals are more likely to maintain regular engagement (Brown et al. 2024). While intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in PA participation among students, it is also important to consider the influence of competition and ego in shaping behaviour.
Ego has previously been researched as an element of extreme competitiveness in physical activities where individuals typically demonstrate superior skills to other competitors (Steyn & Nolte 2021). Correspondingly, a study found that a prominent factor that enhanced PA levels was the spirit of competition (49.1%) (Dėdelė, Chebotarova & Miškinytė, 2022). Conversely, participants from this study did not view competing with others or the desire to work harder than their peers as influential motivators for engaging in PA. These results were further explained by students who indicated that focusing on personal progress rather than comparing oneself to others was more important because the main goal of PA was to improve oneself. These results were in line with a previous systematic review regarding the well-being of university students (Malagodi et al. 2024). These authors found that self-regulatory skills, such as goal setting, have been regarded as important techniques across behaviour domains, including increasing moderate to vigorous PA (Malagodi et al. 2024). This suggests that PA does not have to be competitive. Instead, students should focus on self-improvement to reach their goals. This would shift the focus in PA from being competitive in nature to that of personal growth – ultimately achieving satisfaction instead of focusing on others’ expectations (Mothes et al. 2017).
In terms of the expectations of others, participants did not regard the influence of external expectations on participating in PA as a motivational factor. Instead, personal accountability was deemed more important than the opinion of their peers. Likewise, previous studies indicated that the newfound independence experienced during the transition from high school to university is a big adjustment filled with self-efficacy and decision-making (Alshehri et al. 2021). Typically, high school learners seek approval and conform to peer expectations (Zou et al. 2023), whereas university students realise that they need to be accountable for their actions to enhance their health. Therefore, personal accountability and autonomy in their decisions are prioritised (Alkhateeb et al. 2019). This suggests that consciously deciding to be physically active may be regarded as a motivator to enhance physiological health.
Regarding physiological health, participants reported being motivated to engage in PA due to its positive influence on their physical health. Students explained that these positive influences involved improved cardiovascular fitness, sickness prevention, stress reduction and improved cognitive function through enhanced oxygenation of the brain. Although students were aware of the benefits of regular PA engagement, a large portion of students in this study did not meet the global PA recommendations (WHO 2020). This suggests a gap between PA knowledge and behaviour. One way of closing this gap is through PA courses or active learning strategies that are incorporated into the academic curriculum. This may help students to understand and practice regular movement in their daily lives (Daly-Smith et al. 2020). Likewise, a study focusing on the patterns of PA among university students and their perceptions about the curricula content concerned with health explained that health-related topics were inadequately represented in many of the streams of higher education in university (Verma, Singh & Patwardhan 2022).
Furthermore, results indicated that most participants engaged in PA primarily because it brought students enjoyment and a space for self-reflection. These results are aligned with previous research which indicated that enjoyment mediated the relationship between motivation and PA (Klompstra et al. 2022). Therefore, highly active people may not engage in activities if they do not enjoy them (Klompstra et al. 2022). Similarly, additional studies have found that students who enjoy PA report higher levels of engagement and lower levels of sedentary behaviour than students who enjoy PA at medium or low levels (Bai et al. 2018; Yan et al. 2023). This alludes to enjoyment having the greatest impact on activity persistence. Research has found that enjoyment not only increases PA engagement but is also important for maintaining long-term persistence (Rodrigues et al. 2020). This suggests that efforts to promote PA behaviour should incorporate activities that are peer-affiliated and enjoyable as this may enhance PA participation.
Affiliation in PA relates to a student being closely associated with another individual or a group of peers for social relationships and interaction (Van Luchene & Delens 2021). Based on the findings of this study, students were motivated to participate in PA due to its social aspect. Students explained that the influence of peers and friends motivated them to participate in PA as it made the activities enjoyable and provided a space for students to create social circles. Likewise, another study investigated PA and peer and family social support among students and found that peer affiliation positively affected the PA levels of Chinese college students (Niu, Xu & Yiting 2023). This suggests that improving social support is a feasible way to promote PA behaviours of university students (Niu, Xu & Yiting 2023). Therefore, co-creation between students and university stakeholders could promote student-tailored resources, such as group fitness programmes or small group training sessions, which may serve as a sustainable approach to keeping students healthy (Patterson et al. 2021).
Regarding appearance, students were motivated to engage in PA primarily to enhance their body shape and appearance, while others agreed that it was to enhance appearance only. These results were supported by another study which found that 60% of students identified physical appearance as a motivating factor for engaging in PA (Pellerine et al. 2022). Comparably, another study reported that appearance was the most frequent motivational factor (12.8%) for PA participation (Hoare et al. 2017). Although physical appearance serves as a motivational factor, addressing appearance-related motivations presents an opportunity to support students’ psychosocial well-being (Pellerine et al. 2022). Therefore, PA could be used as a motivating tool to encourage and promote positive self-images and self-confidence while contributing to the holistic wellness (i.e. psychological and physical health) of students.
In terms of psychological condition, participants were motivated to participate in PA due to the psychological benefits, such as being a stress release and helping students to take their minds off daily life. Students highlighted that PA was a means of escaping life’s stresses and clearing their minds for better focus and productivity. This was confirmed by previous research which found that PA is beneficial for psychological health (Mothes et al. 2017), such as decreased negative moods, decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety, lower stress levels and stress attitudes (Trajković et al. 2023). Therefore, to reap these psychological benefits, students should increase their PA levels to cultivate mental well-being.
Mental health
Regarding depression, this study showed that approximately a third of students reported experiencing symptoms of depression at a normal level. This result was approximately three times higher than a previous study researching the prevalence of depressive symptoms among undergraduate students at a South African university (Rousseau et al. 2021). The authors found that depression increased from 3.81% in 2016 to 12.63% in 2019 (Rousseau et al. 2021). Such prevalent symptoms of depression could negatively influence PA participation levels. This might stem from factors such as diminished self-esteem, difficulty finding motivation to rise from bed, and a perceived lack of progress in PA (Rodríguez-Romo et al. 2023). This suggests that extremely severe mental health symptoms could constrain engagement in PA. Conversely, PA may positively influence students’ mental health, where regular engagement may provide a sense of accomplishment and serve as a coping mechanism (Moeller et al. 2020). From this study, students revealed that engaging in PA positively influenced mental health by aiding in the maintenance of mental well-being, facilitating life balance and assisting individuals to navigate challenging life circumstances. Thus, engaging more frequently in PA may mitigate the onset of mental health challenges.
In terms of anxiety, the majority of students (40.6%) revealed that their level of anxiety was extremely severe. This result was approximately 10% higher than a previous study focusing on the mental health of Chinese university students, where it was found that the prevalence of anxiety was 31% (Xiang et al. 2020). This may be attributed to the influence of a negative mindset towards PA engagement. Existing literature has indicated that an individual’s mindset significantly influences their engagement in PA, where a positive mindset correlated with increased levels of participation (Orvidas, Burnette & Russell 2018). For undergraduate university students, this suggests that cultivating a positive mindset could enhance their PA participation and ultimately lead to decreased anxiety levels.
Lastly, stress was found to be normal among the majority of students (43.1%). This result is approximately three times higher than a previous study which found that stress was normal among 15.6% of university students (Asif et al. 2020). This may be because PA has a positive influence on the stress levels of students. Students explained that PA served as a coping mechanism, enabling them to effectively manage stress, gain mental clarity and reduce stress levels. Studies have shown that students who frequently engage in PA are less likely to report perceived stress than those who do not regularly engage in physical activities (VanKim & Nelson 2013; Moeller et al. 2020). Therefore, incorporating PA into the daily lives of students may serve as a coping mechanism for mental well-being.
Strengths and Limitations
Strengths of this study include the integration of quantitative and qualitative data to understand the personal factors that influence the PA levels of undergraduate students from a South African university. This study has a few limitations that need to be addressed. This study was limited to undergraduate university students, thus limiting the generalisability of the findings to other student groups and educational contexts. Researchers wishing to conduct similar studies should involve postgraduate students to gain a broader student perspective. A limitation exists regarding the convenience sampling method that was utilised. Due to the nature of this sampling technique, it is difficult to generalise the results and achieve a representative sample. Despite efforts to mitigate non-response bias by providing email reminders to students and distributing the hard-copy questionnaire across multiple days, the response rate remained low, thus it is encouraged that readers interpret the findings thoughtfully. One contributing factor could be that students may not consistently view their emails. Therefore, researchers wishing to conduct similar studies should consider using random sampling techniques to enhance the generalisability of the findings and ensure a more representative sample. Although the IPAQ-SF, DASS-21, PALMS and PP-Q are useful tools to measure PA levels, mental health, motivation and preference, respectively, they are self-administered questionnaires. Student responses may be subjective and not all students invited to participate in the questionnaire may respond, thus non-response bias may be present. This may reduce the generalisability of the findings. Researchers should strive to implement follow-up procedures to increase the response rate along with additional instruments to measure PA, such as accelerometery, to provide an objective measure of PA. The DASS-21 is a suitable tool to screen depression, anxiety and stress and may identify students who are at risk of being affected by these conditions. However, this tool is not intended for diagnostic purposes and causal relationships cannot be determined. Therefore, additional mental health screening tools should be used to establish a formal diagnosis. Lastly, while the qualitative section of this study explored PA facilitators and barriers related to the personal factors influencing PA participation, these were not examined in the quantitative questionnaire. Researchers should consider incorporating quantitative measures to assess PA facilitators and barriers, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of their influence on student PA engagement.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are provided to improve undergraduate student PA engagement while considering the personal factors that may influence PA engagement. Firstly, an opportunity exists for universities to consider individual preferences and routines when designing PA interventions. Universities could integrate PA courses that not only impart knowledge about PA, but also emphasise its practical application in behavioural change which may be enjoyable. Secondly, it is important to necessitate co-creation efforts between universities and students to develop student-tailored PA initiatives that would be suitable and relevant. Lastly, PA should be incorporated into the daily lives of undergraduate university students to serve as a proactive approach to coping with mental health symptoms. By incorporating these recommendations, universities could proactively contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3, which focuses on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being.
Future studies
Future studies may build on the current study by expanding the sample size to include various universities in South Africa to assess personal factors influencing PA participation among undergraduate students. This would enhance the generalisability of the findings. In addition, future research should employ mixed-methodological approaches that incorporate different research designs, such as concurrent, exploratory or transformative, to track changes in personal factors that may influence PA behaviour. This would enable researchers to gather greater insight which may lead to tailored PA interventions. Lastly, future studies may consider investigating how the personal factors influencing PA could vary across different cultural backgrounds and contexts. This would enable targeted solutions to be formulated that are tailored to these specific contexts.
Conclusion
The study emphasises that personal factors influence undergraduate students’ PA participation. However, the findings indicate inadequate PA levels among this demographic. Evening sessions were preferred, with endurance activities being the most favoured type. Social support and social media emerged as facilitators, while barriers included limited PA knowledge, time constraints and financial issues. Motivations for PA centered around improving body shape, happiness and achieving personal goals. The prevalence of mental health, particularly depression and anxiety were prevalent. Tailored interventions addressing both mental health and motivational aspects are essential to enhance PA participation. Based on these results, student-tailored interventions should be implemented that are relevant to undergraduate students.
Funding Information
This research was funded by the Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship Fund (Sylff) from the Tokyo Foundation (grant number: N/A), the Ernst and Ethel Trust (grant number: N/A), as well as the University of the Western Cape: Deputy Vice-Chancellor Research and Innovation (grant number: N/A).
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.