Table 1
Exclusion criteria and quality check for the overall sample and separately for the three samples.
| SAMPLE 1 | SAMPLE 2 | SAMPLE 3 | TOTAL | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial sample (N) | 1049 | 164 | 191 | 1404 |
| Exclusion criteria (n) | ||||
| Not finished | 110 | 22 | 45 | 177 |
| Not eligible | 34 | 8 | 3 | 45 |
| Noisy environment | 36 | 0 | 12 | 48 |
| Dishonest responses | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
| Duration > 30 min | 17 | 3 | 4 | 24 |
| Final sample (N) | 848 | 131 | 127 | 1106 |
| Exclusion criteria for the arithmetic test (n) | ||||
| Skipping items | 113 | 24 | 57 | 194 |
| Further quality checks without exclusion (n) | ||||
| Device used for survey: | ||||
| tablet | NA | 4 | 4 | 8 |
| smartphone | NA | 22 | 29 | 51 |
| computer/laptop | NA | 105 | 94 | 199 |
| Breaks | 29 | 3 | 6 | 38 |
[i] Notes. NA = not applicable because the question was not included in the survey.
Table 2
Demographics for the overall sample and separately for the three samples.
| WHOLE SAMPLE | SAMPLE 1 | SAMPLE 2 | SAMPLE 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 1106 | 848 | 131 | 127 |
| Characteristic | University students (Germany) | Pre-/in-service teachers (Germany) | Pre-/in-service teachers (Belgium) | |
| Age M (SD) | 24 (5.49) | 23.55 (4.17) | 23.96 (5.89) | 27.06 (10.04) |
| Age range | ||||
| <20 years | 99 | 87 | 8 | 4 |
| 20–29 years | 901 | 700 | 109 | 92 |
| 30–39 years | 80 | 56 | 10 | 14 |
| 40–49 years | 13 | 1 | 2 | 10 |
| over 50 years | 13 | 4 | 2 | 7 |
| Females/Males | 74%/26% | 70%/30% | 89%/11% | 84%/16% |
| Mathematics loada | ||||
| low | 387 | |||
| medium | 342 | |||
| high | 117 | |||
| Mathematics focus/Non- mathematics focusb | 59%/41% | 61%/7%c | ||
| In-service/Pre-serviced | 21%/79% | 32%/68% |
[i] Notes. aMathematics load content in students’ study program. Two participants were not assigned to a mathematics load category because the study program name they entered could not be traced back to any existent degree course. b Percentage of teachers specializing in mathematics or in another subject. c 40 participants (32%) reported no main focus. d Percentage of participants working as teachers (“in-service”) or still in education (“pre-service”).
Table 3
List of the study measures.
| MEASURE | N | N ITEMS | RESPONSE SCALE | THEORETICAL RANGE | M(SD) | MIN–MAX | CRONBACH’S α | ORDINAL α | SKEWNESS(SE) | KURTOSIS(SE) | SAMPLES |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mathematics grade | 1106 | 1 | 1–6a | 1–6 | 2.59 (1.29) | 1–6 | NA | NA | 0.49 (0.07) | –0.64 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Mathematics influence study choice | 1106 | 1 | 1–9 | 1–9 | 5.16 (1.99) | 1–9 | NA | NA | –0.04 (0.07) | –0.19 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Neuroticism (BFI-K, BFI-Fr) | 1106 | 8 | 1–5 | 8–40 | 23.46 (6.05) | 9–40 | 0.84 | 0.86 | 0.16 (0.07) | –0.62 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| General anxiety (GAD-7) | 1106 | 7 | 1–4 | 7–28 | 12.78 (4.14) | 7–28 | 0.84 | 0.87 | 1.13 (0.07) | 1.03 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Test anxiety (TAI-short) | 1106 | 5 | 1–4 | 5–20 | 11.72 (3.95) | 5–20 | 0.84 | 0.88 | 0.29 (0.07) | –0.81 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Mathematics anxiety total (AMAS) | 1106 | 9 | 1–5 | 9–45 | 19.07 (6.88) | 9–45 | 0.89 | 0.93 | 0.67 (0.07) | 0.01 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Learning mathematics anxiety | 1106 | 5 | 1–5 | 5–25 | 7.62 (3.38) | 5–25 | 0.84 | 0.90 | 1.61 (0.07) | 2.80 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Mathematics evaluation anxiety | 1106 | 4 | 1–5 | 4–25 | 11.45 (4.21) | 4–20 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 0.05 (0.07) | –0.95 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Mathematics self-concept (SDQ-III) | 1106 | 4 | 1–4 | 4–16 | 11.35 (3.13) | 4–16 | 0.89 | 0.93 | –0.33 (0.07) | –0.78 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Language self-concept (SDQ-III) | 1106 | 4 | 1–4 | 4–16 | 13.72 (2.37) | 4–16 | 0.82 | 0.88 | –0.95 (0.07) | 0.30 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Mathematics self-efficacy (PISA) | 1106 | 6 | 1–4 | 6–24 | 20.06 (3.50) | 8–24 | 0.83 | 0.89 | –0.77 (0.07) | –0.09 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Liking mathematics | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.23 (1.31) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.23 (0.07) | –1.05 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Liking science | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.65 (1.21) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.57 (0.07) | –0.63 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Liking humanities | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.85 (1.09) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.73 (0.07) | –0.26 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Persistence math | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.47 (1.18) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.46 (0.07) | –0.69 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Persistence science | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.56 (1.09) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.49 (0.07) | –0.47 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Persistence humanities | 1106 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.85 (0.99) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.66 (0.07) | –0.09 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Arithmetic performance | 912 | 40 | Free entry | 0–40 | 13.68 (6.72) | 0–40 | 0.92 | 0.98 | 0.64 (0.08) | 0.59 (0.16) | 1–3 |
| State anxiety (STAI-SKD) | 1106 | 5 | 1–4 | 5–20 | 8.79 (3.23) | 5–20 | 0.86 | 0.90 | 0.96 (0.07) | 0.42 (0.15) | 1–3 |
| Preference teaching language | 217 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 4.06 (1.04) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.92 (0.17) | 0.05 (0.33) | 2–3 |
| Preference teaching math | 213 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 4.19 (0.90) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –1.09 (0.17) | 1.03 (0.33) | 2–3 |
| Preference teaching science | 200 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.97 (1.09) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.97 (0.17) | 0.23 (0.34) | 2–3 |
| Ease of teaching language | 217 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.83 (1.03) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.71 (0.17) | –0.09 (0.33) | 2–3 |
| Ease of teaching math | 212 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.85 (0.88) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.49 (0.17) | –0.01 (0.33) | 2–3 |
| Ease of teaching science | 199 | 1 | 1–5 | 1–5 | 3.67 (0.93) | 1–5 | NA | NA | –0.40 (0.17) | –0.16 (0.34) | 2–3 |
| Mathematics-gender stereotype endorsement (FSMAS-SF) | 258 | 9 | 1–5 | 9–45 | 41.67 (4.55) | 25–45 | 0.80 | 0.92 | –1.63 (0.15) | 2.14 (0.30) | 2–3 |
[i] Notes. The table reports the number of observations (N), the number of items, the theoretical range of scores, mean (M) and standard deviation (SD), minimum and maximum, Cronbach’s and ordinal alphas (α), skewness and its standard error (SE), kurtosis and its standard error, and in which study(s) the measure was assessed. The order of the list resembles the order in which questionnaires and tests were administered to the participants. NA = not applicable due to a single item only. aBelgian grades were originally expressed in the Belgian grading system, as numbers from 0 to 10, with 10 being the best grade; Belgian grades were then recoded in the German grading system.
Table 4
Correlations between the study variables. Significant correlations are marked with asterisks directly under the correlations. Significance levels are specified as follows: * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001. Note that some correlations are very small.
| 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | 1. | 11. | 12. | 13. | 14. | 15. | 16. | 17. | 18. | 19. | 20. | 21. | 22. | 23. | 24. | 25. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Mathematics grade | – | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2. Mathematics influence study choice | –.46 *** | – | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3. Liking math | –.57 *** | .66 *** | – | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 4. Liking science | –.38 *** | .35 *** | .44 *** | – | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 5. Liking humanities | .22 *** | –.28 *** | –.22 *** | –.26 *** | – | ||||||||||||||||||||
| 6. Persistence math | –.49 *** | .50 *** | .70 *** | .36 *** | –.21 *** | – | |||||||||||||||||||
| 7. Persistence science | –.32 *** | .27 *** | .33 *** | .72 *** | –.25 *** | .53 *** | – | ||||||||||||||||||
| 8. Persistence humanities | .20 *** | –.29 *** | –.26 *** | –.24 *** | .69 *** | –.09 ** | –.06 * | – | |||||||||||||||||
| 9. Mathematics anxiety total | .48 *** | –.43 *** | –.59 *** | –.36 *** | .17 *** | –.57 *** | –.36 *** | .13 *** | – | ||||||||||||||||
| 1. Mathematics anxiety learning | .43 *** | –.36 *** | –.46 *** | –.32 *** | .16 *** | –.45 *** | –.32 *** | .12 *** | .88 *** | – | |||||||||||||||
| 11. Mathematics evaluation anxiety | .44 *** | –.43 *** | –.59 *** | –.33 *** | .16 *** | –.57 *** | –.34 *** | .12 *** | .93 *** | .64 *** | – | ||||||||||||||
| 12. General anxiety | .17 *** | –.12 *** | –.15 *** | –.12 *** | .07 * | –.19 *** | –.14 *** | .02 | .35 *** | .32 *** | .32 *** | – | |||||||||||||
| 13. State anxiety | .24 *** | –.15 *** | –.20 *** | –.16 *** | .08 ** | –.23 *** | –.17 *** | .01 | .43 *** | .37 *** | .40 *** | .45 *** | – | ||||||||||||
| 14. Test anxiety | .16 *** | –.11 *** | –.17 *** | –.12 *** | –.03 | –.18 *** | –.12 *** | –.04 | .44 *** | .30 *** | .48 *** | .33 *** | .37 *** | – | |||||||||||
| 15. Mathematics self-concept | –.71 *** | .62 *** | .80 *** | .42 *** | –.25 *** | .70 *** | .40 *** | –.25 *** | –.64 *** | –.55 *** | –.61 *** | –.20 *** | –.25 *** | –.22 *** | – | ||||||||||
| 16. Language self-concept | .14 *** | –.27 *** | –.25 *** | –.19 *** | .37 *** | –.13 *** | –.07 * | .40 *** | .06 | .03 | .07 * | –.07 * | –.08 ** | –.15 *** | –.18 *** | – | |||||||||
| 17. Mathrmstics self-efficacy | –.39 *** | .38 *** | .50 *** | .43 *** | –.22 *** | .48 *** | .41 *** | –.15 *** | –.52 *** | –.45 *** | –.49 *** | –.21 *** | –.30 *** | –.23 *** | .55 *** | –.10 *** | – | ||||||||
| 18. Neuroticism | .09 ** | –.13 *** | –.17 *** | –.11 *** | .05 | –.24 *** | –.18 *** | –.02 | .34 *** | .24 *** | .37 *** | .60 *** | .34 *** | .37 *** | –.19 *** | –.10 *** | –.26 *** | – | |||||||
| 19. Preference teaching language | .27 *** | –.30 *** | –.34 *** | –.26 *** | .29 *** | –.26 *** | –.15 * | .31 *** | .29 *** | .21 ** | .30 *** | .07 | .08 | .11 | –.35 *** | .47 *** | –.30 *** | .16 * | – | ||||||
| 20. Preference teaching math | –.43 *** | .54 *** | .61 *** | .23 *** | –.08 | .44 *** | .17 * | –.12 | –.46 *** | –.37 *** | –.45 *** | –.16 * | –.28 *** | –.27 *** | .57 *** | –.05 | .38 *** | –.18 ** | –.14 * | – | |||||
| 21. Preference teaching science | –.23 *** | –.03 | –.06 | .51 *** | .06 | –.05 | .44 *** | .18 * | –.03 | –.05 | –.02 | .06 | –.05 | –.08 | .01 | –.01 | .08 | –.02 | .04 | .13 | – | ||||
| 22. Ease of teaching language | .26 *** | –.27 *** | –.25 *** | –.24 *** | .24 *** | –.18 ** | –.16 * | .25 *** | .21 ** | .15 * | .22 ** | –.02 | .04 | .07 | –.28 *** | .47 *** | –.20 ** | .02 | .75 *** | –.18 ** | –.12 | – | |||
| 23. Ease of teaching math | –.35 *** | .37 *** | .57 *** | .24 *** | –.11 | .48 *** | .21 ** | –.11 | –.46 *** | –.37 *** | –.45 *** | –.15 * | –.24 *** | –.22 ** | .54 *** | .01 | .41 *** | –.19 ** | –.19 ** | .71 *** | .02 | –.10 | – | ||
| 24. Ease of teaching science | –.17 * | –.03 | .02 | .52 *** | .04 | .02 | .45 *** | .15 * | –.12 | –.13 | –.09 | –.01 | –.09 | –.13 | .06 | .04 | .14 * | –.14 * | .02 | .12 | .74 *** | –.02 | .25 *** | – | |
| 25. Mathematics-gender stereotype endorsement | –.11 | .14 * | .20 ** | .06 | .14 * | .19 ** | .09 | .19 ** | –.18 ** | –.18 ** | –.14 * | –.02 | –.10 | –.11 | .18 ** | .22 *** | .16 ** | .01 | .10 | .27 *** | .05 | .09 | .25 *** | .04 | – |
| 26. Arithmetic performance | –.22 *** | .24 *** | .32 *** | .16 *** | –.12 *** | .26 *** | .14 *** | –.10 ** | –.28 *** | –.22 *** | –.29 *** | –.09 ** | –.18 *** | –.09 ** | .32 *** | .003 | .36 *** | –.13 *** | –.11 | .33 *** | –.09 | –.004 | .36 *** | –.04 | .25 *** |