References
- 1Alhanbali, S., Dawes, P., Millman, R. E., & Munro, K. J. (2019). Measures of listening effort are multidimensional. Ear and Hearing. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000697
- 2Alsius, A., Navarra, J., Campbell, R., & Soto-Faraco, S. (2005). Audiovisual integration of speech falters under high attention demands. Current Biology: CB, 15(9), 839–843. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2005.03.046
- 3Arnold, P., & Hill, F. (2001). Bisensory augmentation: A speechreading advantage when speech is clearly audible and intact. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 339–355. DOI: 10.1348/000712601162220
- 4Balota, D. A., Yap, M. J., Cortese, M. J., Hutchison, K. A., Kessler, B., Loftis, B., Treiman, R., et al. (2007). The English Lexicon Project. Behavior Research Methods, 39(3), 445–459. DOI: 10.3758/BF03193014
- 5Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3). DOI: 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
- 6Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Christensen, R., Singmann, H., Green, P., et al. (2014). Package “lme4” (Version 1.1-15). Retrieved from R foundation for statistical computing, Vienna, 12 website:
https://github.com/lme4/lme4/ - 7Bourland-Hicks, C., & Tharpe, A. M. (2002). Listening effort and fatigue in school-age children with and without hearing loss. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 45(3), 573–584. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2002/046)
- 8Brown, V. A., & Strand, J. F. (2018). Noise increases listening effort in normal-hearing young adults, regardless of working memory capacity. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34, 628–640. DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2018.1562084
- 9Danan, M. (1992). Reversed subtitling and dual coding theory: New directions for foreign language instruction. Language Learning, 42(4), 497–527. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992.tb01042.x
- 10Desjardins, J. L., & Doherty, K. A. (2013). Age-related changes in listening effort for various types of masker noises. Ear and Hearing, 34(3), 261–272. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0b013e31826d0ba4
- 11Downs, D. W. (1982). Effects of hearing aid use on speech discrimination and listening effort. The Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 47(2), 189–193. DOI: 10.1044/jshd.4702.189
- 12Erber, N. P. (1969). Interaction of audition and vision in the recognition of oral speech stimuli. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 12(2), 423–425. DOI: 10.1044/jshr.1202.423
- 13Fraser, S., Gagné, J.-P., Alepins, M., & Dubois, P. (2010). Evaluating the effort expended to understand speech in noise using a dual-task paradigm: The effects of providing visual speech cues. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 53(1), 18–33. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0140)
- 14Frtusova, J. B., Winneke, A. H., & Phillips, N. A. (2013). ERP evidence that auditory-visual speech facilitates working memory in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 28(2), 481–494. DOI: 10.1037/a0031243
- 15Gagné, J.-P., Besser, J., & Lemke, U. (2017). Behavioral assessment of listening effort using a dual-task paradigm: A review. Trends in Hearing, 21,
2331216516687287 . DOI: 10.1177/2331216516687287 - 16Gosselin, P. A., & Gagné, J.-P. (2011a). Older adults expend more listening effort than young adults recognizing audiovisual speech in noise. International Journal of Audiology, 50(11), 786–792. DOI: 10.3109/14992027.2011.599870
- 17Gosselin, P. A., & Gagné, J.-P. (2011b). Older adults expend more listening effort than young adults recognizing speech in noise. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 54(3), 944–958. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2010/10-0069)
- 18Grant, K. W., & Walden, B. E. (1996). Evaluating the articulation index for auditory-visual consonant recognition. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 100(4), 2415–2424. DOI: 10.1121/1.417950
- 19Grant, K. W., Walden, B. E., & Seitz, P. F. (1998). Auditory-visual speech recognition by hearing-impaired subjects: Consonant recognition, sentence recognition, and auditory-visual integration. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 103(5 Pt 1), 2677–2690. DOI: 10.1121/1.422788
- 20Helfer, K. S., & Freyman, R. L. (2005). The role of visual speech cues in reducing energetic and informational masking. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 117(2), 842–849. DOI: 10.1121/1.1836832
- 21Johnson, J., Xu, J., Cox, R., & Pendergraft, P. (2015). A comparison of two methods for measuring listening effort as part of an audiologic test battery. American Journal of Audiology, 24(3), 419–431. DOI: 10.1044/2015_AJA-14-0058
- 22Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- 23Keidser, G., Best, V., Freeston, K., & Boyce, A. (2015). Cognitive spare capacity: evaluation data and its association with comprehension of dynamic conversations. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 597. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00597
- 24Koelewijn, T., Zekveld, A. A., Festen, J. M., Rönnberg, J., & Kramer, S. E. (2012). Processing load induced by informational masking is related to linguistic abilities. International Journal of Otolaryngology, 2012,
865731 . DOI: 10.1155/2012/865731 - 25Kuchinsky, S. E., Ahlstrom, J. B., Vaden, K. I.,
Jr. , Cute, S. L., Humes, L. E., Dubno, J. R., & Eckert, M. A. (2013). Pupil size varies with word listening and response selection difficulty in older adults with hearing loss. Psychophysiology, 50(1), 23–34. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01477.x - 26Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P., & Christensen, R. (2017). lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models. Journal of Statistical Software, Articles, 82(13), 1–26. DOI: 10.18637/jss.v082.i13
- 27Leys, C., Ley, C., Klein, O., Bernard, P., & Licata, L. (2013). Detecting outliers: Do not use standard deviation around the mean, use absolute deviation around the median. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(4), 764–766. DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.03.013
- 28Mastroberardino, S., Santangelo, V., Botta, F., Marucci, F. S., & Olivetti Belardinelli, M. (2008). How the bimodal format of presentation affects working memory: An overview. Cognitive Processing, 9(1), 69–76. DOI: 10.1007/s10339-007-0195-6
- 29Mattys, S. L., Davis, M. H., Bradlow, A. R., & Scott, S. K. (2012). Speech recognition in adverse conditions: A review. Language and Cognitive Processes, 27(7–8), 953–978. DOI: 10.1080/01690965.2012.705006
- 30McCoy, S. L., Tun, P. A., Cox, L. C., Colangelo, M., Stewart, R. A., & Wingfield, A. (2005). Hearing loss and perceptual effort: Downstream effects on older adults’ memory for speech. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology, 58(1), 22–33. DOI: 10.1080/02724980443000151
- 31McGarrigle, R., Dawes, P., Stewart, A. J., Kuchinsky, S. E., & Munro, K. J. (2016). Pupillometry reveals changes in physiological arousal during a sustained listening task. Psychophysiology, 54(2), 193–203. DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12772
- 32McGarrigle, R., Munro, K. J., Dawes, P., Stewart, A. J., Moore, D. R., Barry, J. G., & Amitay, S. (2014). Listening effort and fatigue: What exactly are we measuring? A British Society of Audiology Cognition in Hearing Special Interest Group “white paper.” International Journal of Audiology, 53(7), 433–445. DOI: 10.3109/14992027.2014.890296
- 33Mishra, S., Lunner, T., Stenfelt, S., Rönnberg, J., & Rudner, M. (2013a). Seeing the talker’s face supports executive processing of speech in steady state noise. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7, 96. DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00096
- 34Mishra, S., Lunner, T., Stenfelt, S., Rönnberg, J., & Rudner, M. (2013b). Visual information can hinder working memory processing of speech. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56, 1120–1132. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0033)
- 35Ng, E. H. N., Rudner, M., Lunner, T., Pedersen, M. S., & Rönnberg, J. (2013). Effects of noise and working memory capacity on memory processing of speech for hearing-aid users. International Journal of Audiology, 52(7), 433–441. DOI: 10.3109/14992027.2013.776181
- 36Pashler, H. (1994). Dual-task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 116(2), 220–244. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.220
- 37Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Kramer, S. E., Eckert, M. A., Edwards, B., Hornsby, B. W. Y., Humes, L. E., Wingfield, A., et al. (2016). Hearing impairment and cognitive energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL). Ear and Hearing, 37(Suppl 1), 5S–27S. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000312
- 38Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Schneider, B. A., & Daneman, M. (1995). How young and old adults listen to and remember speech in noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97(1), 593–608. DOI: 10.1121/1.412282
- 39Picou, E. M., & Ricketts, T. A. (2014). The effect of changing the secondary task in dual-task paradigms for measuring listening effort. Ear and Hearing, 35(6), 611–622. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000055
- 40Picou, E. M., Ricketts, T. A., & Hornsby, B. W. Y. (2011). Visual cues and listening effort: individual variability. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 54(5), 1416–1430. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2011/10-0154)
- 41Picou, E. M., Ricketts, T. A., & Hornsby, B. W. Y. (2013). How hearing aids, background noise, and visual cues influence objective listening effort. Ear and Hearing, 34(5), e52–e64. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0b013e31827f0431
- 42Rabbitt, P. M. (1968). Channel-capacity, intelligibility and immediate memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20(3), 241–248. DOI: 10.1080/14640746808400158
- 43Rönnberg, J., Lunner, T., Zekveld, A., Sörqvist, P., Danielsson, H., Lyxell, B., Rudner, M., et al. (2013). The Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical advances. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7, 31. DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00031
- 44Rudner, M., Mishra, S., Stenfelt, S., Lunner, T., & Rönnberg, J. (2016). Seeing the Talker’s Face Improves Free Recall of Speech for Young Adults With Normal Hearing but Not Older Adults With Hearing Loss. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 59(3), 590–599. DOI: 10.1044/2015_JSLHR-H-15-0014
- 45Sarampalis, A., Kalluri, S., Edwards, B., & Hafter, E. (2009). Objective measures of listening effort: Effects of background noise and noise reduction. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 52(5), 1230–1240. DOI: 10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0111)
- 46Seeman, S., & Sims, R. (2015). Comparison of psychophysiological and dual-task measures of listening effort. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 58(6), 1781–1792. DOI: 10.1044/2015_JSLHR-H-14-0180
- 47Shoop, C., & Binnie, C. A. (1979). The effects of age upon the visual perception of speech. Scandinavian Audiology, 8(1), 3–8. DOI: 10.3109/01050397909076295
- 48Sommers, M. S., & Phelps, D. (2016). Listening effort in younger and older adults: A comparison of auditory-only and auditory-visual presentations. Ear and Hearing, 37(Suppl 1), 62S–8S. DOI: 10.1097/AUD.0000000000000322
- 49Sommers, M. S., Tye-Murray, N., & Spehar, B. (2005). Auditory-visual speech perception and auditory-visual enhancement in normal-hearing younger and older adults. Ear and Hearing, 26(3), 263–275. DOI: 10.1097/00003446-200506000-00003
- 50Strand, J. F., Brown, V. A., Merchant, M. B., Brown, H. E., & Smith, J. (2018). Measuring listening effort: Convergent validity, sensitivity, and links with cognitive and personality measures. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 61, 1463–1486. DOI: 10.1044/2018_JSLHR-H-17-0257
- 51Sumby, W. H., & Pollack, I. (1954). Visual contributions to speech intelligibility in noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 26(2), 212–215. DOI: 10.1121/1.1907309
- 52Thompson, V. A., & Paivio, A. (1994). Memory for pictures and sounds: Independence of auditory and visual codes. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology = Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Experimentale, 48(3), 380–398. DOI: 10.1037/1196-1961.48.3.380
- 53Tye-Murray, N., Sommers, M. S., & Spehar, B. (2007). Auditory and visual lexical neighborhoods in audiovisual speech perception. Trends in Amplification, 11(4), 233–241. DOI: 10.1177/1084713807307409
- 54Tye-Murray, N., Sommers, M. S., Spehar, B., Myerson, J., Hale, S., & Rose, N. S. (2008). Auditory-visual discourse comprehension by older and young adults in favorable and unfavorable conditions. International Journal of Audiology, 47(sup2), S31–S37. DOI: 10.1080/14992020802301662
- 55Tye-Murray, N., Spehar, B., Myerson, J., Hale, S., & Sommers, M. S. (2016). Lipreading and audiovisual speech recognition across the adult lifespan: Implications for audiovisual integration. Psychology and Aging, 31(4), 380–389. DOI: 10.1037/pag0000094
- 56Van Engen, K. J., Phelps, J. E. B., Smiljanic, R., & Chandrasekaran, B. (2014). Enhancing speech intelligibility: Interactions among context, modality, speech style, and masker. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research: JSLHR, 57(5), 1908–1918. DOI: 10.1044/JSLHR-H-13-0076
- 57Wagner, A. E., Toffanin, P., & Başkent, D. (2016). The timing and effort of lexical access in natural and degraded speech. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 398. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00398
- 58Winn, M. (2018). Praat script for creating speech-shaped noise [software] version 12. Retrieved July 9, 2018, from
http://www.mattwinn.com/praat.html
