References
- Adams, B. C., Clifton, C., & Mitchell, D. C. (1998). Lexical guidance in sentence processing? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(2), 265–270. 10.3758/BF03212949
- Baltin, M. R. (1995). Floating Quantifiers, PRO, and Predication. Linguistic Inquiry, 26(2), 199–248.
- Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
- Boeckx, N., Cedric, H., & Nunes, J. (2010). Control as Movement. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511761997
- Boyce, V., Futrell, R., & Levy, R. P. (2020). Maze Made Easy: Better and easier measurement of incremental processing difficulty. Journal of Memory and Language, 111,
104082 . 10.1016/j.jml.2019.104082 - Büring, D. (2005). Binding Theory. Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511802669
- Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures. Foris.
- Chomsky, N. (1982). Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding. MIT Press.
- Clifton, C.,
Jr. (1993). Thematic roles in sentence parsing. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47(2), 222–246. 10.1037/h0078817 - Clifton, C., Traxler, M. J., Taha Mohamed, M., Williams, R. S., Morris, R. K., & Rayner, K. (2003). The use of thematic role information in parsing: Syntactic processing autonomy revisited. Journal of Memory and Language, 49(3), 317–334. 10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00070-6
- Crocker, M. W. (1996). Computational psycholinguistics: An interdisciplinary approach to the study of language (Vol. 20). Springer Netherlands.
- Crocker, M. W. (2010). Computational Psycholinguistics. In The Handbook of Computational Linguistics and Natural Language Processing (pp. 482–513). 10.1002/9781444324044.ch17
- Crocker, M. W., & Brants, T. (2000). Wide-Coverage Probabilistic Sentence Processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 29(6), 647–669. 10.1023/A:1026560822390
- Ferreira, F., & Clifton, C. (1986). The independence of syntactic processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 25(3), 348–368. 10.1016/0749-596X(86)90006-9
- Ferreira, F., & Henderson, J. M. (1990). Use of Verb Information in Syntactic Parsing: Evidence From Eye Movements and Word-by-Word Self-Paced Reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 555–568. 10.1037//0278-7393.16.4.555
- Ferreira, F., & Henderson, A. M. (1991). Recovery from misanalyses of garden-path sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 30(6), 725–745. 10.1016/0749-596X(91)90034-H
- Ferreira, F., & Henderson, J. M. (1998).
Syntactic reanalysis, thematic processing, and sentence comprehension . In J. D. Fodor & F. Ferreira (Eds.), Reanalysis in sentence processing (Vol. 21, pp. 73–100). Springer Netherlands.https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-9070-9_3 - Fodor, J. D., & Ferreira, F. (1998). Reanalysis in Sentence Processing. Springer Netherlands. 10.1007/978-94-015-9070-9
- Forster, K. I., Guerrera, C., & Elliot, L. (2009). The maze task: Measuring forced incremental sentence processing time. Behavior Research Methods, 41(1), 163–171. 10.3758/BRM.41.1.163
- Frazier, L. (1979). On comprehending sentences: Syntactic parsing strategies [PhD Thesis, University of Connecticut].
https://opencommons.uconn.edu/dissertations/AAI7914150/ - Frazier, L. (1987).
Sentence Processing: A Tutorial Review . In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and Performance XII: The Psychology of Reading (pp. 559–586). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. - Frazier, L., & Clifton, C. (1996). Construal. MIT Press.
- Frazier, L., & Rayner, K. (1982). Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 14(2), 178–210. 10.1016/0010-0285(82)90008-1
- Frazier, M., Ackerman, L., Baumann, P., Potter, D., & Yoshida, M. (2015). Wh-filler-gap dependency formation guides reflexive antecedent search. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01504
- Fujita, H. (2021). On the parsing of garden-path sentences. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 36(10), 1234–1245. 10.1080/23273798.2021.1922727
- Fujita, H. (2023). Predictive structure building in language comprehension: A large sample study on incremental licensing and parallelism. Cognitive Processing, 24(2), 301–311. 10.1007/s10339-023-01130-8
- Fujita, H. (2024a). Memory Retrieval in Online Sentence Parsing: Empirical Evidence, Computational Modelling, and Simulations. Computational Brain & Behavior, 7, 457–478. 10.1007/s42113-024-00206-8
- Fujita, H. (2024b). Online revision process in clause-boundary garden-path sentences. Memory & Cognition, 52, 73–90. 10.3758/s13421-023-01444-0
- Fujita, H. (2025a). Active dependency formation, maintenance cost and proactive retrieval interference. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience. 10.1080/23273798.2025.2522267
- Fujita, H. (2025b). The L-maze task and web-based data collection in second language sentence processing research. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 4(3),
100251 . 10.1016/j.rmal.2025.100251 - Fujita, H. (2026). Reassessing cumulative self-paced reading (SPR): Testing three variants shows cumulative SPR can be more useful than standard non-cumulative SPR for sentence-processing research, depending on presentation format. Behavior Research Methods, 58(7),
192 . 10.3758/s13428-026-03044-7 - Fujita, H., & Cunnings, I. (2020). Reanalysis and lingering misinterpretation of linguistic dependencies in native and non-native sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 115,
104154 . 10.1016/j.jml.2020.104154 - Fujita, H., & Cunnings, I. (2021). Reanalysis processes in non-native sentence comprehension. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(4), 628–641. 10.1017/S1366728921000195
- Fujita, H., & Cunnings, I. (2022). Interference and filler-gap dependency formation in native and non-native language comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 48(5), 702–716. 10.1037/xlm0001134
- Fujita, H., & Cunnings, I. (2024). Subject-verb dependency formation and semantic interference in native and non-native language comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 45(1), 81–109. 10.1017/S0142716423000498
- Fujita, H., & Yoshida, M. (2024). Online reflexive resolution and interference. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 39(4), 513–526. 10.1080/23273798.2024.2329269
- Fujita, H., & Yoshida, M. (2026a). Active dependency formation and ambiguity resolution in real-time sentence processing. Memory & Cognition. 10.3758/s13421-026-01893-3
- Fujita, H., & Yoshida, M. (2026b). Real-time resolution of VP ellipsis ambiguity and processing depth. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 33(3),
95 . 10.3758/s13423-026-02873-z - Garnsey, S. M., Pearlmutter, N. J., Myers, E., & Lotocky, M. A. (1997). The Contributions of Verb Bias and Plausibility to the Comprehension of Temporarily Ambiguous Sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(1), 58–93. 10.1006/jmla.1997.2512
- Gibson, E. (1991). A Computational Theory of Human Linguistic Processing: Memory Limitations and Processing Breakdown [PhD Thesis]. Carnegie Mellon University.
- Gibson, E., & Warren, T. (2004). Reading-Time Evidence for Intermediate Linguistic Structure in Long-Distance Dependencies. Syntax, 7(1), 55–78. 10.1111/j.1368-0005.2004.00065.x
- Giskes, A., & Kush, D. (2021). Processing cataphors: Active antecedent search is persistent. Memory & Cognition, 49(7), 1370–1386. 10.3758/s13421-021-01176-z
- González Alonso, J., Cunnings, I., Fujita, H., Miller, D., & Rothman, J. (2021). Gender attraction in sentence comprehension. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 6(1),
20 . 10.5334/gjgl.1300 - Gorrell, P. (1995). Syntax and Parsing. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core. 10.1017/CBO9780511627682
- Green, J. J. (2018). Adjunct Control: Syntax and processing [PhD Thesis]. University of Maryland.
- Hale, J. (2001). A probabilistic Earley parser as a psycholinguistic model. Proceedings of NAACL, 2, 159–166. 10.3115/1073336.1073357
- Hall, K., & Yoshida, M. (2021). Coreference and parallelism. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 36(3), 296–319. 10.1080/23273798.2020.1827154
- Holmes, V. M., Stowe, L., & Cupples, L. (1989). Lexical expectations in parsing complement-verb sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 28(6), 668–689. 10.1016/0749-596X(89)90003-X
- Huang, K.-J., Arehalli, S., Kugemoto, M., Muxica, C., Prasad, G., Dillon, B., & Linzen, T. (2024). Large-scale benchmark yields no evidence that language model surprisal explains syntactic disambiguation difficulty. Journal of Memory and Language, 137,
104510 . 10.1016/j.jml.2024.104510 - Jäger, L. A., Mertzen, D., Van Dyke, J. A., & Vasishth, S. (2020). Interference patterns in subject-verb agreement and reflexives revisited: A large-sample study. Journal of Memory and Language, 111,
104063 . 10.1016/j.jml.2019.104063 - Kawasaki, N. (1993). Control and Arbitrary Interpretation in English [PhD Thesis]. University of Massachusetts.
- Kazanina, N., Lau, E. F., Lieberman, M., Yoshida, M., & Phillips, C. (2007). The effect of syntactic constraints on the processing of backwards anaphora. Journal of Memory and Language, 56(3), 384–409. 10.1016/j.jml.2006.09.003
- Keine, S. (2020). Locality Domains in Syntax: Evidence from Sentence Processing. Syntax, 23(2), 105–151. 10.1111/synt.12195
- Kennison, S. M. (2001). Limitations on the use of verb information during sentence comprehension. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(1), 132–138. 10.3758/BF03196149
- Kush, D., Lidz, J., & Phillips, C. (2017). Looking forwards and backwards: The real-time processing of Strong and Weak Crossover. Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics, 2(1),
70 . 10.5334/gjgl.280 - Landau, I. (2013). Control in Generative Grammar: A Research Companion. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core. 10.1017/CBO9781139061858
- Landau, I. (2021). A Selectional Theory of Adjunct Control. The MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/13925.001.0001
- Landau, I. (2025). Control. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core. 10.1017/9781009243124
- Levy, R. (2008). Expectation-based syntactic comprehension. Cognition, 106(3), 1126–1177. 10.1016/j.cognition.2007.05.006
- Martin, R. (2001).
Null Case and the Distribution of PRO . Linguistic Inquiry, 32(1), 141–166. JSTOR. 10.1162/002438901554612 - McRae, K., & Matsuki, K. (2013).
Constraint-based models of sentence processing . In Sentence processing. (pp. 51–77). Psychology Press. - McRae, K., Spivey-Knowlton, M., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998). Modeling the Influence of Thematic Fit (and Other Constraints) in On-line Sentence Comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 38(3), 283–312. 10.1006/jmla.1997.2543
- Mitchell, D. C. (1987).
Lexical guidance in human parsing: Locus and processing characteristics . In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and Performance XII: The Psychology of Reading (pp. 601–618). Erlbaum. - Omaki, A., Lau, E. F., Davidson White, I., Dakan, M. L., Apple, A., & Phillips, C. (2015). Hyper-active gap filling. Frontiers in Psychology, 06. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00384
- Parker, D. (2019). Cue Combinatorics in Memory Retrieval for Anaphora. Cognitive Science, 43(3),
e12715 . 10.1111/cogs.12715 - Phillips, C. (2006). The Real-Time Status of Island Phenomena. Language, 82(4), 795–823. 10.1353/lan.2006.0217
- Pickering, M. J., & Traxler, M. J. (1998). Plausibility and recovery from garden paths: An eye-tracking study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(4), 940–961. 10.1037/0278-7393.24.4.940
- Pickering, M. J., & Traxler, M. J. (2003). Evidence against the use of subcategorisation frequency in the processing of unbounded dependencies. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(4), 469–503. 10.1080/01690960344000017
- Pickering, M. J., Traxler, M. J., & Crocker, M. W. (2000). Ambiguity Resolution in Sentence Processing: Evidence against Frequency-Based Accounts. Journal of Memory and Language, 43(3), 447–475. 10.1006/jmla.2000.2708
- Pritchett, B. L. (1988). Garden Path Phenomena and the Grammatical Basis of Language Processing. Language, 64(3),
539 . 10.2307/414532 - Pritchett, B. L. (1992). Grammatical Competence and Parsing Performance. University of Chicago Press.
- Qian, Z., Lee, E.-K., Lu, D. H.-Y., & Garnsey, S. M. (2019). Native and non-native (L1-Mandarin) speakers of English differ in online use of verb-based cues about sentence structure. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 897–911. 10.1017/S1366728918001001
- R Core Team. (2025). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
https://www.R-project.org/ - Radford, A., Wu, J., Child, R., Luan, D., Amodei, D., & Sutskever, I. (2019). Language Models are Unsupervised Multitask Learners.
- Rayner, K., & Frazier, L. (1987). Parsing temporarily ambiguous complements. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 39(4), 657–673. 10.1080/14640748708401808
- Reed, L. A. (2014). Strengthening the PRO Hypothesis. De Gruyter Mouton. 10.1515/9781614510413
- Reinhart, T. (1976). The syntactic domain of anaphora [PhD Thesis]. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- Schmauder, A. R., & Egan, M. C. (1998). The influence of semantic fit on on-line sentence processing. Memory & Cognition, 26(6), 1304–1312. 10.3758/BF03201202
- Slattery, T. J., Sturt, P., Christianson, K., Yoshida, M., & Ferreira, F. (2013). Lingering misinterpretations of garden path sentences arise from competing syntactic representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(2), 104–120. 10.1016/j.jml.2013.04.001
- Spivey-Knowlton, M. (1996). Integration of visual and linguistic information: Human data and model simulations [PhD Thesis]. University of Rochester.
- Spivey-Knowlton, M., & Sedivy, J. C. (1995). Resolving attachment ambiguities with multiple constraints. Cognition, 55(3), 227–267. 10.1016/0010-0277(94)00647-4
- Spivey-Knowlton, M., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998). Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution in Discourse: Modeling the Effects of Referential Context and Lexical Frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(6), 1521–1543. 10.1037/0278-7393.24.6.1521
- Sturt, P. (1997). Syntactic reanalysis in human language processing [PhD Thesis]. University of Edinburgh.
- Sturt, P. (2003). The time-course of the application of binding constraints in reference resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 48(3), 542–562. 10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00536-3
- Sturt, P., Pickering, M. J., & Crocker, M. W. (1999). Structural Change and Reanalysis Difficulty in Language Comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 40(1), 136–150. 10.1006/jmla.1998.2606
- Tabor, W., & Hutchins, S. (2004). Evidence for Self-Organized Sentence Processing: Digging-In Effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(2), 431–450. 10.1037/0278-7393.30.2.431
- Tabor, W., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1999). Dynamical Models of Sentence Processing. Cognitive Science, 23(4), 491–515. 10.1207/s15516709cog2304_5
- Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M., & Hanna, J. E. (2000).
Modeling thematic and discourse context effects with a multiple constraints approach: Implications for the architecture of the language comprehension system . In Architectures and mechanisms for language processing. (pp. 90–118). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511527210.005 - Traxler, M. J., & Pickering, M. J. (1996). Case-marking in the Parsing of Complement Sentences: Evidence from Eye Movements. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 49A(4), 991–1004. 10.1080/713755674
- Trueswell, J. C., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Kello, C. (1993). Verb-Specific Constraints in Sentence Processing: Separating Effects of Lexical Preference From Garden-Paths. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(3), 528–553. 10.1037/0278-7393.19.3.528
- Truswell, R. (2014).
Binding Theory . In A. Carnie, Y. Sato, & D. Siddiqi (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Syntax (Vol. 1, pp. 214–238). Routledge. - van Gompel, R. P. G., & Pickering, M. J. (2001). Lexical guidance in sentence processing: A note on Adams, Clifton, and Mitchell (1998). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(4), 851–857. 10.3758/BF03196228
- Vasishth, S., Mertzen, D., Jäger, L. A., & Gelman, A. (2018). The statistical significance filter leads to overoptimistic expectations of replicability. Journal of Memory and Language, 103, 151–175. 10.1016/j.jml.2018.07.004
- Williams, E. (1992).
Adjunct Control . In K. Larson R, S. Iatridou, U. Lahiri, & J. Higginbotham (Eds.), Control and Grammar. Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy (Vol. 48, pp. 297–322). Springer. 10.1007/978-94-015-7959-9_9 - Witzel, N., Witzel, J., & Forster, K. (2012). Comparisons of Online Reading Paradigms: Eye Tracking, Moving-Window, and Maze. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 41(2), 105–128. 10.1007/s10936-011-9179-x
- Yoshida, M., Dickey, M. W., & Sturt, P. (2013). Predictive processing of syntactic structure: Sluicing and ellipsis in real-time sentence processing. Language and Cognitive Processes, 28(3), 272–302. 10.1080/01690965.2011.622905
- Zehr, J., & Schwarz, F. (2018). PennController for Internet Based Experiments (IBEX) [Computer software]. 10.17605/OSF.IO/MD832
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.507 | Journal eISSN: 2514-4820
Language: English
Page range: 35 - 35
Submitted on: Nov 20, 2025
Accepted on: Jun 15, 2026
Published on: Jul 1, 2026
Published by: Ubiquity Press
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
© 2026 Hiroki Fujita, published by Ubiquity Press
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.