Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Experiences Enhance Metacognitive Sensitivity of Confidence Evaluation of Semantic Memory

Ali Pournaghdali; Bennett L. Schwartz; Fabian A. Soto

doi:10.5334/joc.442

Abstract

In this study, we used a multidimensional extension of signal detection theory called general recognition theory (GRT) to evaluate the influence of tip-of-the-tongue states (TOT) and feeling-of-knowing (FOK) experiences on the metacognitive sensitivity of recognition confidence judgments. In two experiments, we asked participants to recall names of famous individuals (Experiment 1) or to recall correct answers to a series of general-knowledge questions (Experiment 2). If recall failed for any trial, participants provided metacognitive judgments of TOT and FOK, memory recognition responses, and metacognitive judgments of confidence on those recognition responses. To evaluate the influence of TOT and FOK on the metacognitive sensitivity of confidence judgments, we fit two different GRT models and constructed two sensitivity vs. metacognition curves, each representing changes in metacognitive sensitivity of confidence, as a function of the strength of TOT or FOK. The results showed that experiencing a TOT or a high FOK is associated with an increase in metacognitive sensitivity of confidence judgments. These results are the first report of influence of TOT and FOK on metacognitive sensitivity of confidence.

References

Allen, M., Glen, J. C., Müllensiefen, D., Schwarzkopf, D. S., Fardo, F., Frank, D., Callaghan, M. F., & Rees, G. (2017). Metacognitive ability correlates with hippocampal and prefrontal microstructure. NeuroImage, 149, 415–423. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.02.008
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Arango-Muñoz, S. (2011). Two Levels of Metacognition. Philosophia, 39(1), 71–82. 10.1007/s11406-010-9279-0
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ashby, F. G., & Soto, F. A. (2015). Multidimensional signal detection theory. In The Oxford handbook of computational and mathematical psychology (pp. 13–34). Oxford University Press. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199957996.013.2
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Ashby, F. G., & Townsend, J. T. (1986). Varieties of perceptual independence. Psychological Review, 93(2), 154–179. 10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.154
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Baird, B., Cieslak, M., Smallwood, J., Grafton, S. T., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). Regional white matter variation associated with domain-specific metacognitive accuracy. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 27(3), 440–452. 10.1162/jocn_a_00741
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Gorgolewski, K. J., & Margulies, D. S. (2013). Medial and lateral networks in anterior prefrontal cortex support metacognitive ability for memory and perception. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 33(42), 16657–16665. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0786-13.2013
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Barnes, A. E., Nelson, T. O., Dunlosky, J., Mazzoni, G., & Narens, L. (1999). An integrative system of metamemory components involved in retrieval. In Attention and performance XVII: Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 287–313). The MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/1480.003.0017
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 417–444. 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Bloom, P. A., Friedman, D., Xu, J., Vuorre, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2018). Tip-of-the-tongue states predict enhanced feedback processing and subsequent memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 63, 206–217. 10.1016/j.concog.2018.05.010
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Brewer, G. A., Marsh, R. L., Clark-Foos, A., & Meeks, J. T. (2010). Noncriterial recollection influences metacognitive monitoring and control processes. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(10), 1936–1942. 10.1080/17470210903551638
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Brown, R., & McNeill, D. (1966). The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 325–337. 10.1016/S0022-5371(66)80040-3
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Chua, E. F., Schacter, D. L., & Sperling, R. A. (2009). Neural correlates of metamemory: a comparison of feeling-of-knowing and retrospective confidence judgments. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(9), 1751–1765. 10.1162/jocn.2009.21123
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Cleary, A. M. (2006). Relating familiarity-based recognition and the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Detecting a word’s recency in the absence of access to the word. Memory & Cognition, 34(4), 804–816. 10.3758/BF03193428
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Cleary, A. M. (2015). The use of cue familiarity during retrieval failure is affected by past versus future orientation. Memory (Hove, England), 23(4), 590–601. 10.1080/09658211.2014.913639
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Cleary, A. M., McNeely-White, K. L., Russell, S. A., Huebert, A. M., & Hausman, H. (2021). The tip-of-the-tongue state as a form of access to information: Use of tip-of-the-tongue states for strategic adaptive test-taking. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10(1), 131–142. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.08.013
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Condon, B. (2017). Beauty and the Beast. The Walt Disney Company.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Delay, C. G., & Wixted, J. T. (2021). Discrete-state versus continuous models of the confidence-accuracy relationship in recognition memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 28(2), 556–564. 10.3758/s13423-020-01831-7
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Eakin, D. K., Hertzog, C., & Harris, W. (2014). Age invariance in semantic and episodic metamemory: both younger and older adults provide accurate feeling-of-knowing for names of faces. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 21(1), 27–51. 10.1080/13825585.2013.775217
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Elman, J. A., Klostermann, E. C., Marian, D. E., Verstaen, A., & Shimamura, A. P. (2012). Neural correlates of metacognitive monitoring during episodic and semantic retrieval. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 12(3), 599–609. 10.3758/s13415-012-0096-8
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Faivre, N., Filevich, E., Solovey, G., Kühn, S., & Blanke, O. (2018). Behavioral, Modeling, and Electrophysiological Evidence for Supramodality in Human Metacognition. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 38(2), 263–277. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0322-17.2017
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Fleming, S. M., & Daw, N. D. (2017). Self-evaluation of decision-making: A general Bayesian framework for metacognitive computation. Psychological Review, 124(1), 91–114. 10.1037/rev0000045
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Gollan, T. H., & Brown, A. (2006). From tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) data to theoretical implications in two steps: when more TOTs means better retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 135(3), 462–483. 10.1037/0096-3445.135.3.462
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Grimaldi, P., Lau, H., & Basso, M. A. (2015). There are things that we know that we know, and there are things that we do not know we do not know: Confidence in decision-making. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 88–97. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.006
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Hertzog, C., Dunlosky, J., & Sinclair, S. M. (2010). Episodic Feeling-of-Knowing Resolution Derives from the Quality of Original Encoding. Memory & Cognition, 38(6), 771–784. 10.3758/MC.38.6.771
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Huebert, A. M., McNeely-White, K. L., & Cleary, A. M. (2023). On the relationship between tip-of-the-tongue states and partial recollective experience: Illusory partial recollective access during tip-of-the-tongue states. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 152(2), 542–570. 10.1037/xge0001292
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Huijbers, W., Papp, K. V., LaPoint, M., Wigman, S. E., Dagley, A., Hedden, T., Rentz, D. M., Schultz, A. P., & Sperling, R. A. (2017). Age-Related Increases in Tip-of-the-tongue are Distinct from Decreases in Remembering Names: A Functional MRI Study. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991), 27(9), 4339–4349. 10.1093/cercor/bhw234
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Imperio, C. M., & Chua, E. F. (2023). HD-tDCS over the left DLPFC increases cued recall and subjective question familiarity rather than other aspects of memory and metamemory. Brain Research, 1819, 148538. 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148538
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Jachs, B., Blanco, M. J., Grantham-Hill, S., & Soto, D. (2015). On the independence of visual awareness and metacognition: a signal detection theoretic analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41(2), 269–276. 10.1037/xhp0000026
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Kiani, R., Corthell, L., & Shadlen, M. N. (2014). Choice certainty is informed by both evidence and decision time. Neuron, 84(6), 1329–1342. 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.015
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100(4), 609–639. 10.1037/0033-295x.100.4.609
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A. (2000). The feeling of knowing: some metatheoretical implications for consciousness and control. Consciousness and Cognition, 9(2 Pt 1), 149–171. 10.1006/ccog.2000.0433
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A. (2007). Metacognition and consciousness. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of consciousness (pp. 289–325). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511816789.012
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A. (2015). Metacognition: Decision making Processes in Self-monitoring and Self-regulation (G. Keren & G. Wu, Eds.; 1st ed., pp. 356–379). Wiley. 10.1002/9781118468333.ch12
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A., & Levy-Sadot, R. (2001). The combined contributions of the cue-familiarity and accessibility heuristics to feelings of knowing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27(1), 34–53. 10.1037/0278-7393.27.1.34
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Koriat, A., & Lieblich, I. (1974). What does a person in a “TOT” state know that a person in a “don’t know” state doesn’t know? Memory & Cognition, 2(4), 647–655. 10.3758/BF03198134
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Lee, A. L. F., Ruby, E., Giles, N., & Lau, H. (2018). Cross-Domain Association in Metacognitive Efficiency Depends on First-Order Task Types. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2464. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02464
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Leonesio, R. J., & Nelson, T. O. (1990). Do different metamemory judgments tap the same underlying aspects of memory? Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(3), 464–467. 10.1037//0278-7393.16.3.464
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Maniscalco, B., & Lau, H. (2012). A signal detection theoretic approach for estimating metacognitive sensitivity from confidence ratings. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(1), 422–430. 10.1016/j.concog.2011.09.021
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Maniscalco, B., & Lau, H. (2014). Signal Detection Theory Analysis of Type 1 and Type 2 Data: Meta- d′, Response-Specific Meta- d′, and the Unequal Variance SDT Model. In S. M. Fleming & C. D. Frith (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of metacognition. Springer-Verlag Publishing. 10.1007/978-3-642-45190-4_3
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Maniscalco, B., & Lau, H. (2016). The signal processing architecture underlying subjective reports of sensory awareness. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2016(1), niw002. 10.1093/nc/niw002
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Maniscalco, B., Odegaard, B., Grimaldi, P., Cho, S. H., Basso, M. A., Lau, H., & Peters, M. A. K. (2021). Tuned inhibition in perceptual decision-making circuits can explain seemingly suboptimal confidence behavior. PLoS Computational Biology, 17(3), e1008779. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008779
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Maril, A., Simons, J. S., Weaver, J. J., & Schacter, D. L. (2005). Graded recall success: an event-related fMRI comparison of tip of the tongue and feeling of knowing. NeuroImage, 24(4), 1130–1138. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.10.024
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
McCurdy, L. Y., Maniscalco, B., Metcalfe, J., Liu, K. Y., de Lange, F. P., & Lau, H. (2013). Anatomical coupling between distinct metacognitive systems for memory and visual perception. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 33(5), 1897–1906. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1890-12.2013
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
McWilliams, A., Bibby, H., Steinbeis, N., David, A. S., & Fleming, S. M. (2023). Age-related decreases in global metacognition are independent of local metacognition and task performance. Cognition, 235, 105389. 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105389
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Mehta, P. (2017). Celebrity-Face-Recognition-Dataset. Retrieved from https://github.com/prateekmehta59/Celebrity-Face-Recognition-Dataset
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J. (1986). Feeling of knowing in memory and problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12(2), 288–294. 10.1037/0278-7393.12.2.288
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J., & Schwartz, B. L. (2016). The Ghost in the Machine. In J. Dunlosky & S. K. Tauber (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Metamemory. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336746.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199336746-e-19
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Bloom, P. A. (2017). The tip-of-the-tongue state and curiosity. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 2. 10.1186/s41235-017-0065-4
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Joaquim, S. G. (1993). The cue-familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(4), 851–861. 10.1037//0278-7393.19.4.851
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994). Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. xiii, 334). The MIT Press. 10.7551/mitpress/4561.001.0001
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Metcalfe, J., Vuorre, M., Towner, E., & Eich, T. S. (2023). Curiosity: The effects of feedback and confidence on the desire to know. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 152(2), 464–482. 10.1037/xge0001284
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Morales, J., Lau, H., & Fleming, S. M. (2018). Domain-General and Domain-Specific Patterns of Activity Supporting Metacognition in Human Prefrontal Cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 38(14), 3534–3546. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2360-17.2018
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Morson, S. M., Moulin, C. J. A., & Souchay, C. (2015). Selective deficits in episodic feeling of knowing in ageing: a novel use of the general knowledge task. Acta Psychologica, 157, 85–92. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2015.02.014
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nelson, T. O., & Dunlosky, J. (1992). How Shall We Explain the Delayed-Judgment-Of-Learning Effect? Psychological Science, 3(5), 317–319. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00681.x
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Nelson, T. O., & Narens, L. (1980). Norms of 300 general-information questions: Accuracy of recall, latency of recall, and feeling-of-knowing ratings. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 19(3), 338–368. 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90266-2
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Palmer, E. C., David, A. S., & Fleming, S. M. (2014). Effects of age on metacognitive efficiency. Consciousness and Cognition, 28, 151–160. 10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.007
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pannu, J. K., Kaszniak, A. W., & Rapcsak, S. Z. (2005). Metamemory for faces following frontal lobe damage. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 11(6), 668–676. 10.1017/S1355617705050873
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pappas, B. A., Sunderland, T., Weingartner, H. M., Vitiello, B., Martinson, H., & Putnam, K. (1992). Alzheimer’s disease and feeling-of-knowing for knowledge and episodic memory. Journal of Gerontology, 47(3), P159–164. 10.1093/geronj/47.3.p159
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Perfect, T. J. (2002). When does eyewitness confidence predict performance? In Applied metacognition (pp. 95–120). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511489976.006
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pleskac, T. J., & Busemeyer, J. R. (2010). Two-stage dynamic signal detection: a theory of choice, decision time, and confidence. Psychological Review, 117(3), 864–901. 10.1037/a0019737
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pournaghdali, A., Schwartz, B. L., Hays, J., & Soto, F. A. (2023). Sensitivity vs. awareness curve: A novel model-based analysis to uncover the processes underlying nonconscious perception. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 30(2), 553–563. 10.3758/s13423-022-02180-3
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Pournaghdali, A., Schwartz, B. L., & Soto, F. (2025, April 18). A Detection Theory Analysis of the Relation of Tip-of-the-Tongue States and Feelingof-Knowing Judgments to Memory Recognition Sensitivity. Retrieved from osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/6bxza_v1
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Rahnev, D., Desender, K., Lee, A. L. F., Adler, W. T., Aguilar-Lleyda, D., Akdoğan, B., Arbuzova, P., Atlas, L. Y., Balcı, F., Bang, J. W., Bègue, I., Birney, D. P., Brady, T. F., Calder-Travis, J., Chetverikov, A., Clark, T. K., Davranche, K., Denison, R. N., Dildine, T. C., … Zylberberg, A. (2020). The Confidence Database. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(3), 317–325. 10.1038/s41562-019-0813-1
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Reggev, N., Zuckerman, M., & Maril, A. (2011). Are all judgments created equal? An fMRI study of semantic and episodic metamemory predictions. Neuropsychologia, 49(5), 1332–1342. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.01.013
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sacher, M., Taconnat, L., Souchay, C., & Isingrini, M. (2009). Divided attention at encoding: effect on feeling-of-knowing. Consciousness and Cognition, 18(3), 754–761. 10.1016/j.concog.2009.04.001
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Samaha, J., & Postle, B. R. (2017). Correlated individual differences suggest a common mechanism underlying metacognition in visual perception and visual short-term memory. Proceedings. Biological Sciences, 284(1867), 20172035. 10.1098/rspb.2017.2035
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schnyer, D. M., Verfaellie, M., Alexander, M. P., LaFleche, G., Nicholls, L., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2004). A role for right medial prefrontal cortex in accurate feeling-of-knowing judgments: evidence from patients with lesions to frontal cortex. Neuropsychologia, 42(7), 957–966. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.11.020
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schraw, G., Dunkle, M. E., Bendixen, L. D., & Roedel, T. D. (1995). Does a general monitoring skill exist? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 433–444. 10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.433
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schraw, G., & Nietfeld, J. (1998). A further test of the general monitoring skill hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 236–248. 10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.236
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L. (2008). Working memory load differentially affects tip-of-the-tongue states and feeling-of-knowing judgments. Memory & Cognition, 36(1), 9–19. 10.3758/mc.36.1.9
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L. (2010). The effects of emotion on tip-of-the-tongue states. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17(1), 82–87. 10.3758/PBR.17.1.82
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Cleary, A. M. (2016, June 1). Tip-of-the-Tongue States, Déjà Vu Experiences, and Other Odd Metacognitive Experiences. The Oxford Handbook of Metamemory. 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199336746.013.5
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (1992). Cue familiarity but not target retrievability enhances feeling-of-knowing judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 1074–1083. 10.1037//0278-7393.18.5.1074
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Metcalfe, J. (2011). Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states: retrieval, behavior, and experience. Memory & Cognition, 39(5), 737–749. 10.3758/s13421-010-0066-8
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., Pillot, M., & Bacon, E. (2014). Contextual information influences the feeling of knowing in episodic memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 29, 96–104. 10.1016/j.concog.2014.08.018
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Pournaghdali, A. (2016). Metacognition and conscious experience. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 39, e195. 10.1017/S0140525X15002253
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Pournaghdali, A. (2020). Tip-of-the-tongue States: Past and Future. In A. M. Cleary & B. L. Schwartz (Eds.), Memory Quirks: The Study of Odd Phenomena in Memory (pp. 207–223). Routledge. 10.4324/9780429264498-16
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., & Pournaghdali, A. (2023). The relation of subjective experience to cognitive processing. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 46, e375. 10.1017/S0140525X23000262
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Schwartz, B. L., Travis, D. M., Castro, A. M., & Smith, S. M. (2000). The phenomenology of real and illusory tip-of-the-tongue states. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 18–27. 10.3758/bf03211571
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shekhar, M., & Rahnev, D. (2021). The nature of metacognitive inefficiency in perceptual decision making. Psychological Review, 128(1), 45–70. 10.1037/rev0000249
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Shekhar, M., & Rahnev, D. (2024). How do humans give confidence? A comprehensive comparison of process models of perceptual metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 153(3), 656–688. 10.1037/xge0001524
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Silbert, N. H., & Thomas, R. D. (2017). Identifiability and testability in GRT with individual differences. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 77, 187–196. 10.1016/j.jmp.2016.08.002
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Sinanaj, I., Cojan, Y., & Vuilleumier, P. (2015). Inter-individual variability in metacognitive ability for visuomotor performance and underlying brain structures. Consciousness and Cognition, 36, 327–337. 10.1016/j.concog.2015.07.012
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Song, C., Kanai, R., Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Schwarzkopf, D. S., & Rees, G. (2011). Relating inter-individual differences in metacognitive performance on different perceptual tasks. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1787–1792. 10.1016/j.concog.2010.12.011
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Soto, F. A., Vucovich, L., Musgrave, R., & Ashby, F. G. (2015). General recognition theory with individual differences: a new method for examining perceptual and decisional interactions with an application to face perception. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(1), 88–111. 10.3758/s13423-014-0661-y
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Soto, F. A., Zheng, E., Fonseca, J., & Ashby, F. G. (2017). Testing Separability and Independence of Perceptual Dimensions with General Recognition Theory: A Tutorial and New R Package (grtools). Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 696. 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00696
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Souchay, C., & Isingrini, M. (2012). Are feeling-of-knowing and judgment-of-learning different? Evidence from older adults. Acta Psychologica, 139(3), 458–464. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.01.007
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Souchay, C., Moulin, C. J. A., Clarys, D., Taconnat, L., & Isingrini, M. (2007). Diminished episodic memory awareness in older adults: evidence from feeling-of-knowing and recollection. Consciousness and Cognition, 16(4), 769–784. 10.1016/j.concog.2006.11.002
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Tauber, S. K., Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Rhodes, M. G., & Sitzman, D. M. (2013). General knowledge norms: updated and expanded from the Nelson and Narens (1980) norms. Behavior Research Methods, 45(4), 1115–1143. 10.3758/s13428-012-0307-9
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Trousdale, G., & Wise, K. (1991). Beauty and the Beast. The Walt Disney Company.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Veenman, M. V. J., Elshout, J. J., & Meijer, J. (1997). The generality vs domain-specificity of metacognitive skills in novice learning across domains. Learning and Instruction, 7(2), 187–209. 10.1016/S0959-4752(96)00025-4
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yaniv, I., & Meyer, D. E. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccessible stored information: potential bases for incubation effects in problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13(2), 187–205. 10.1037//0278-7393.13.2.187
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Yokoyama, O., Miura, N., Watanabe, J., Takemoto, A., Uchida, S., Sugiura, M., Horie, K., Sato, S., Kawashima, R., & Nakamura, K. (2010). Right frontopolar cortex activity correlates with reliability of retrospective rating of confidence in short-term recognition memory performance. Neuroscience Research, 68(3), 199–206. 10.1016/j.neures.2010.07.2041
Open DOI Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Tip-of-the-Tongue and Feeling-of-Knowing Experiences Enhance Metacognitive Sensitivity of Confidence Evaluation of Semantic Memory

Abstract

Paradigm

My account