References
- 1Allport, D. A., Styles, E. A., & Hsieh, S. (1994).
Shifting intentional set: Exploring the dynamic control of tasks . In C. Umiltà & M. Moscovitch (Eds.), Attention and performance 15: Conscious and nonconscious information processing (pp. 421–452). The MIT Press. - 2Barr, D. J., Levy, R., Scheepers, C., & Tily, H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of memory and language, 68(3). 10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001
- 3Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. 10.18637/jss.v067.i01
- 4Bhandari, A., & Duncan, J. (2014). Goal neglect and knowledge chunking in the construction of novel behaviour. Cognition, 130(1), 11–30. 10.1016/j.cognition.2013.08.013
- 5Boehler, C. N., Schevernels, H., Hopf, J. M., Stoppel, C. M., & Krebs, R. M. (2014). Reward prospect rapidly speeds up response inhibition via reactive control. Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience, 14(2), 593–609. 10.3758/s13415-014-0251-5
- 6Boehler, N., Hopf, J.-M., Krebs, R., Stoppel, C. M., Schoenfeld, M. A., Heinze, H.-J., & Noesselt, T. (2011). Task-load-dependent activation of dopaminergic midbrain areas in the absence of reward. JOURNAL OF NEUROSCIENCE, 31(13), 4955–4961. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4845-10.2011
- 7Bogacz, R., Hu, P. T., Holmes, P. J., & Cohen, J. D. (2010). Do humans produce the speed-accuracy trade-off that maximizes reward rate?. Quarterly journal of experimental psychology, 63(5), 863–891. 10.1080/17470210903091643
- 8Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108(3), 624–652. 10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624
- 9Braem, S., & Egner, T. (2018). Getting a Grip on Cognitive Flexibility. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(6), 470–476. 10.1177/0963721418787475
- 10Braem, S., Verguts, T., Roggeman, C., & Notebaert, W. (2012). Reward modulates adaptations to conflict. COGNITION, 125(2), 324–332. 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.015
- 11Brass, M., Liefooghe, B., Braem, S., & De Houwer, J. (2017). Following new task instructions: Evidence for a dissociation between knowing and doing. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews, 81(Pt A), 16–28. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.012
- 12Britten, K. H., Newsome, W. T., Shadlen, M. N., Celebrini, S., & Movshon, J. A. (1996). A relationship between behavioral choice and the visual responses of neurons in macaque MT. Visual Neuroscience, 13(1), 87–100. 10.1017/S095252380000715X
- 13Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power Analysis and Effect Size in Mixed Effects Models: A Tutorial. Journal of cognition, 1(1), 9. 10.5334/joc.10
- 14Bundt, C., Abrahamse, E. L., Braem, S., Brass, M., & Notebaert, W. (2016). Reward anticipation modulates primary motor cortex excitability during task preparation. NeuroImage, 142, 483–488. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.07.013
- 15Burton, S., Knibb, G., & Jones, A. (2021). A meta-analytic investigation of the role of reward on inhibitory control. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(10), 1818–1828. 10.1177/17470218211008895
- 16Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. F., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(3), 306–307. 10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_13
- 17Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. 10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319
- 18Clay, G., Mlynski, C., Korb, F. M., Goschke, T., & Job, V. (2022). Rewarding cognitive effort increases the intrinsic value of mental labor. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 119(5), 1–8. 10.1073/pnas.2111785119
- 19Cohen, J. D., Dunbar, K., & McClelland, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97(3), 332–361. 10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.332
- 20David, L., Vassena, E., & Bijleveld, E. (2024). The unpleasantness of thinking: A meta-analytic review of the association between mental effort and negative affect. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication. 10.1037/bul0000443
- 21de Leeuw, J. R. (2015). jsPsych: A JavaScript library for creating behavioral experiments in a web browser. Behavior Research Methods, 47(1), 1–12. 10.3758/s13428-014-0458-y
- 22Ditterich, J., Mazurek, M. E., & Shadlen, M. N. (2003). Microstimulation of visual cortex affects the speed of perceptual decisions. Nature Neuroscience, 6(8), 891–898. 10.1038/nn1094
- 23Esterman, M., Grosso, M., Liu, G., Mitko, A., Morris, R., & DeGutis, J. (2016). Anticipation of Monetary Reward Can Attenuate the Vigilance Decrement. PloS one, 11(7),
e0159741 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0159741 - 24Esterman, M., Poole, V., Liu, G., & DeGutis, J. (2017). Modulating Reward Induces Differential Neurocognitive Approaches to Sustained Attention. Cerebral cortex, 27(8), 4022–4032. 10.1093/cercor/bhw214
- 25Fine, J. M., & Hayden, B. Y. (2022). The whole prefrontal cortex is premotor cortex. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 377(1844), 20200524. 10.1098/rstb.2020.0524
- 26Fox, J. & Weisberg, S. (2019). An R Companion to Applied Regression, Third edition. Sage, Thousand Oaks CA.
https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/jfox/Books/Companion/ . - 27Frömer, R., Lin, H., Dean Wolf, C. K., Inzlicht, M., Shenhav, A. (2021). Expectations of reward and efficacy guide cognitive control allocation. Nature Communucations, 12(1), 1030. 10.1038/s41467-021-21315-z
- 28Grahek, I., Leng, X., Musslick, S., & Shenhav, A. (2024). Control adjustment costs limit goal flexibility: Empirical evidence and a computational account. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology, 2023.08.22.554296. 10.1101/2023.08.22.554296
- 29Hopko, D. R., Mahadevan, R., Bare, R. L., & Hunt, M. K. (2003). The Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS): Construction, Validity, and Reliability. Assessment, 10(2), 178–82. 10.1177/1073191103010002008
- 30Hull, C. L. (1943).
Principles of Behavior . New York: Appleton-Century. - 31Inzlicht, M., Legault, L., & Teper, R. (2014). Exploring the Mechanisms of Self-Control Improvement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(4), 302–307. 10.1177/0963721414534256
- 32Inzlicht, M., Shenhav, A., & Olivola, C. Y. (2018). The effort paradox: Effort is both costly and valued. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(4), 337–349. 10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.007
- 33Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 665–682. 10.1037/a0020198
- 34Kostandyan, M., Park, H. R. P., Bundt, C., González-García, C., Wisniewski, D., Krebs, R. M., & Boehler, C. N. (2020). Are all behavioral reward benefits created equally? An EEG-fMRI study. NeuroImage, 215, 116829. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116829
- 35Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., Roberts, K. C., Song, A. W., & Woldorff, M. G. (2012). The involvement of the dopaminergic midbrain and cortico-striatal-thalamic circuits in the integration of reward prospect and attentional task demands. Cerebral Cortex, 22(3), 607–615. 10.1093/cercor/bhr134
- 36Krebs, R. M., Boehler, C. N., & Woldorff, M. G. (2010). The influence of reward associations on conflict processing in the Stroop task. Cognition, 117(3), 341–347. 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.018
- 37Lenth, R. (2018). Emmeans: estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. R package version, 1(1). 10.32614/CRAN.package.emmeans
- 38Monsell, S. (2003). Task switching. Trends in cognitive sciences, 7(3), 134–140. 10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00028-7
- 39Musslick, S., Bizyaeva, A., Agaron, S., Leonard, N., & Cohen, J. D. (2019, January). Stability-flexibility dilemma in cognitive control: A dynamical system perspective. In Proceedings of the 41st annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society.
- 40Musslick, S., Botvinick, M. M., Shenhav, A., & Cohen, J. D. (2015). A computational model of control allocation based on the Expected Value of Control. In Reinforcement Learning and Decision Making Conference. Edmonton, Alberta, CA.
- 41Norman, D. A., & Bobrow, D. G. (1975). On data-limited and resource-limited processes. Cogn. Psychol., 4, 44–64. 10.1016/0010-0285(75)90004-3
- 42Otto, A. R., Braem, S., Silvetti, M., & Vassena, E. (2022). Is the juice worth the squeeze? Learning the marginal value of mental effort over time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151(10), 2324–2341. 10.1037/xge0001208
- 43Otto, A. R., & Daw, N. D. (2019). The opportunity cost of time modulates cognitive effort. Neuropsychologia, 123, 92–105. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.05.006
- 44Padmala, S., & Pessoa, L. (2011). Reward reduces conflict by enhancing attentional control and biasing visual cortical processing. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 23(11), 3419–3432. 10.1162/jocn_a_00011
- 45Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R., & Carr, R. A. (1980). Attention and the detection of signals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 109(2), 160–174. 10.1037/0096-3445.109.2.160
- 46Rajananda, S., Lau, H. & Odegaard, B., (2018). A Random-Dot Kinematogram for Web-Based Vision Research. Journal of Open Research Software, 6(1), p.6. 10.5334/jors.194
- 47R Core Team. (2021).
R: A language and environment for statistical computing . R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.https://www.R-project.org/ - 48Sandra, D. A., & Otto, A. R. (2018). Cognitive capacity limitations and Need for Cognition differentially predict reward-induced cognitive effort expenditure. Cognition, 172, 101–106. 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.12.004
- 49Schad, D. J., Vasishth, S., Hohenstein, S., & Kliegl, R. (2020). How to capitalize on a priori contrasts in linear (mixed) models: A tutorial. Journal of Memory and Language, 110, Article 104038. 10.1016/j.jml.2019.104038
- 50Schevernels, H., Krebs, R., Santens, P., Woldorff, M. G., & Boehler, N. (2014). Task preparation processes related to reward prediction precede those related to task-difficulty expectation. NEUROIMAGE, 84, 639–647. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.039
- 51Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M. & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: an integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79, 217–240. 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007
- 52Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. 10.1037/h0054651
- 53Ustun, B., Adler, L. A., Rudin, C., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Berglund, P., Gruber, M. J., & Kessler, R. C. (2017). The World Health Organization Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Screening Scale for DSM-5. JAMA psychiatry, 74(5), 520–527. 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0298
- 54van den Berg, B., Krebs, R. M., Lorist, M. M., & Woldorff, M. G. (2014). Utilization of reward-prospect enhances preparatory attention and reduces stimulus conflict. Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience, 14(2), 561–577. 10.3758/s13415-014-0281-z
- 55Vassena, E., Gerrits, R., Demanet, J., Verguts, T., & Siugzdaite, R. (2019). Anticipation of a mentally effortful task recruits Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex: An fNIRS validation study. Neuropsychologia, 123, 106–115. 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.033
- 56Vassena, E., Silvetti, M., Boehler, N., Achten, E., Fias, W., & Verguts, T. (2014). Overlapping neural systems represent cognitive effort and reward anticipation. PLOS ONE, 9(3). 10.1371/journal.pone.0091008
- 57Verguts, T., Vassena, E., & Silvetti, M. (2015). Adaptive effort investment in cognitive and physical tasks: A neurocomputational model. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, Article 57. 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00057
- 58Vermeylen, L., Braem, S., & Notebaert, W. (2019). The affective twitches of task switches: Task switch cues are evaluated as negative. Cognition, 183, 124–130. 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.11.002
- 59Vermeylen, L., Braem, S., Notebaert, W., & Ruitenberg, M. F. L. (2022). The subjective evaluation of task switch cues is related to voluntary task switching. Cognition, 224, 105063. 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105063
- 60Voeten, C. C. (2020). buildmer: Stepwise Elimination and Term Reordering for Mixed-Effects Regression. R package version 1.5. 10.32614/CRAN.package.buildmer
- 61Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PloS one, 8(7),
e68210 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0068210