Figure 1
The three types of stimuli: sculptures (digital reproductions of artistic masterpieces, above), avatars (low resolution versions of the sculptures that were reduced to anthropomorphic figures, in the middle), and cubes (geometrical 3D figures formed by cubic voxels covering the same space of relevant sculptures and avatars, below).
Table 1
Mean ± standard deviation for NASA-TLX (score ranges between 0 and 10) and USEQ (0–5) for sculptures measured in this study and those measured for paintings in a previous study (Iosa et al., 2021).
| SCALE | DOMAINS | MEAN ± SD SCULPTURES | MEAN ± SD PAINTINGS |
|---|---|---|---|
| NASA-TLX | Mental Demand | 3.81 ± 2.36 | 0.98 ± 1.16 |
| Physical Demand | 2.56 ± 1.54 | 2.20 ± 2.17 | |
| Temporal Demand | 2.19 ± 1.67 | 0.78 ± 0.11 | |
| Effort | 7.88 ± 1.93 | 1.11 ± 1.06 | |
| Performance | 2.94 ± 1.87 | 2.04 ± 1.99 | |
| Frustration level | 1.66 ± 1.54 | 2.04 ± 1.10 | |
| USEQ | Experienced enjoyment | 4.44 ± 0.67 | 4.80 ± 0.52 |
| Successful use | 4.69 ± 0.64 | 4.85 ± 0.37 | |
| Ability to control | 4.69 ± 0.59 | 4.85 ± 0.37 | |
| Clarity of information | 4.66 ± 0.87 | 5.00 ± 0.00 | |
| Discomfort | 1.66 ± 1.00 | 1.65 ± 0.99 | |
| Perceived utility | 4.16 ± 1.22 | 4.70 ± 0.92 |
Figure 2
Mean and standard deviation of the kinematic parameters for sculptures (grey bars), avatars (black bars) and cubes (white bars).
Table 2
Results of Repeated measure Analysis of Variance on psychometric variables (F and relevant degrees of freedom, p-values in bold if <0.05, and Effect Size ES reported in terms of partial eta squared). Interactions type per model per repetitions were not reported because not statistically significant for all the variables.
| PARAMETER | FACTOR | F | P | ES |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Objective Beauty | Type | F(2,58) = 122.56 | <0.001 | 0.809 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 16.41 | <0.001 | 0.361 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 0.80 | 0.378 | 0.027 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 2.56 | 0.042 | 0.081 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 1.60 | 0.211 | 0.052 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.49 | 0.614 | 0.017 | |
| Subjective Beauty | Type | F(2,58) = 116.62 | <0.001 | 0.801 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 16.12 | <0.001 | 0.357 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 1.91 | 0.177 | 0.062 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 5.96 | <0.001 | 0.170 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 1.16 | 0.320 | 0.039 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 1.65 | 0.201 | 0.051 | |
| Perceived Fatigue | Type | F(2,58) = 2.15 | 0.125 | 0.069 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 7.61 | <0.001 | 0.274 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 0.36 | 0.552 | 0.012 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 1.80 | 0.133 | 0.058 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 3.04 | 0.056 | 0.095 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.19 | 0.827 | 0.007 | |
| Perceived Symmetry | Type | F(2,58) = 3.17 | 0.049 | 0.099 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 7.49 | 0.001 | 0.205 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 10.28 | 0.003 | 0.262 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 0.38 | 0.820 | 0.013 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 2.38 | 0.101 | 0.076 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.38 | 0.686 | 0.013 |
Table 3
Results of Repeated measure Analysis of Variance on kinematic variables (F and relevant degrees of freedom, p-values in bold if <0.05, and Effect Size ES reported in terms of partial eta squared). Interactions type per model per repetitions were not reported because not statistically significant for all the variables.
| Time to Complete the Task | Type | F(2,58) = 9.38 | <0.001 | 0.319 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 19.88 | <0.001 | 0.499 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 22.74 | <0.001 | 0.532 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 2.08 | 0.092 | 0.094 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 1.58 | 0.219 | 0.073 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.19 | 0.830 | 0.009 | |
| Length of Trajectory | Type | F(2,58) = 11.41 | <0.001 | 0.282 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 68.49 | <0.001 | 0.703 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 1.32 | 0.260 | 0.044 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 4.37 | 0.002 | 0.131 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 0.146 | 0.864 | 0.005 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.282 | 0.755 | 0.010 | |
| Symmetry | Type | F(2,58) = 5.13 | 0.009 | 0.150 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 3.52 | 0.036 | 0.108 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 6.65 | 0.015 | 0.186 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 0.97 | 0.427 | 0.032 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 1.45 | 0.243 | 0.048 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 0.62 | 0.539 | 0.021 | |
| Normalized Jerk | Type | F(2,58) = 0.72 | 0.489 | 0.024 |
| Model | F(2,58) = 3.60 | 0.034 | 0.110 | |
| Repetition | F(1,29) = 20.05 | <0.001 | 0.409 | |
| Type*Model | F(4,116) = 1.78 | 0.138 | 0.058 | |
| Type*Repetition | F(2,58) = 8.82 | <0.001 | 0.233 | |
| Repetition*Model | F(2,58) = 011 | 0.896 | 0.004 |
Table 4
Results of correlations between perception and action related parameters (R: Pearson coefficient, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001).
| TYPE OF STIMULUS | VARIABLES | OBJECTIVE BEAUTY | TIME TO COMPLETE THE TASK | NORMALIZED JERK | SYMMETRY |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sculptures | Subjective beauty | R = 0.627*** | R = 0.050 | R = 0.100 | R = –0.091 |
| Perceived fatigue | R = –0.139 | R = 0.286*** | R = –0.310*** | R = –0.021 | |
| Perceived symmetry | R = –0.071 | R = –0.164* | R = 0.122 | R = 0.727*** | |
| Avatars | Subjective beauty | R = 0.812*** | R = –0.185* | R = 0.184* | R = –0.066 |
| Perceived fatigue | R = –0.141 | R = 0.311*** | R = –0.327*** | R = –0.062 | |
| Perceived symmetry | R = –0.151* | R = –0.198** | R = 0.122 | R = 0.699*** | |
| Cubes | Subjective beauty | R = 0.907*** | R = –0.035 | R = –0.042 | R = –0.001 |
| Perceived fatigue | R = –0.274*** | R = 0.247** | R = –0.262*** | R = –0.046 | |
| Perceived symmetry | R = –0.060 | R = –0.130 | R = 0.001 | R = 0.526*** |