Review 1: Perspectives on Teacher Education in the Digital Age (Jako Olivier, Avinash Oojorah, Waaiza Udhin)
Review authored by: Honglan Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
Review of: Olivier, J., Oojorah A., Udhin, W. (eds) (2022) Perspectives on teacher education in the digital age. Singapore: Springer Nature. 241 pages. ISBN 978-981-19-4225-9
Perspectives on Teacher Education in the Digital Age, edited by J. Olivier, A. Oojorah, and W. Udhin (2022), provides valuable insights into the unprecedented challenges faced by teacher education, teaching, and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The book focuses on the experiences of in-service and pre-service teachers, as well as lecturers, in navigating the integration of technology in the context of the pandemic and the rapid changes brought by the digital era. What sets the volume apart is its focus on the Southern African region, including countries such as South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia, offering a unique perspective on the subject matter.
The book is organised into four sections, consisting of 13 chapters. Section 1, titled “Introduction, Challenges, and Needs”, includes the first four chapters. Chapter 1 by the editors serves as the introductory chapter, providing an overview of the book’s purpose and structure, setting the foundation for the subsequent chapters. Chapter 2, authored by M. K. Seeletso, presents a conceptual framework that explores the potential of technology integration while addressing the challenges faced by teachers in developing countries when adopting technology in lesson delivery. This chapter sheds light on the need for robust teacher training and development plans for the digital era. Chapter 3, written by T. M. Kaputa, G. Muleya, and F. Simui, delves into the experiences of pre-service teachers in special needs education who utilise e-portfolios for their practical work in open distance e-learning (ODeL) institutions in Zambia and Zimbabwe. The findings indicate a generally positive attitude towards e-portfolios among students. However, the study also highlights challenges such as limited access to digital devices and insufficient training on employing learning management platforms for accessing materials or uploading e-portfolios. The chapter offers recommendations for the effective management of e-portfolios for both students and departments considering these challenges. Chapter 4 by T. Batane and C. Butale focuses on the assessment processes in a technology course within an in-service education programme at the University of Botswana. The chapter evaluates the impact of assessment on participants’ development of technology skills through their performance on various assignments. The study finds that assessment plays a role in enhancing teachers’ competencies in technology integration while identifying areas where additional skill development is needed. The authors recommend implementing ongoing assessments for teachers in schools to monitor their sustained use of technology in teaching, ensuring the long-lasting effectiveness of technology training.
Section 2, titled “Experience Sharing”, features Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5 written by O. Shumba, L. Nkhata, A. Simpande, and C. Fwalo explores the experiences of mathematics and science teachers in emergency remote teaching and virtual learning, focusing on digital pedagogies and competencies. The chapter presents insights from lecturers and students regarding the competencies required for effective virtual learning and teaching. The findings indicate a lack of confidence among both lecturers and students when it comes to online teaching and learning. The study emphasises the need for major changes to equip teacher educators, teachers, and learners with digital competencies at both institutional and personal levels. In Chapter 6 by M. C. Tarusikirwa, the focus shifts to the experiences of academics and students at the Zimbabwean Open University in utilising ICT-based teaching and learning pedagogies. The chapter explores various aspects, including the successes and challenges encountered during the transition to virtual teaching and learning, the impact of ICT on lesson delivery, and the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on teacher development. The study identifies several challenges, such as the existence of a digital gap among staff and students as well as inadequate internet infrastructure. The chapter concludes by recommending the development and implementation of various ICT-based teacher development models to address the educational needs of the digital era.
Section 3, named “Different Approaches”, comprises Chapters 7, 8, and 9. Chapter 7, authored by A. Oojorah and W. Udhin, focuses on the transformation of traditional teaching and learning environments in the primary school sector in Mauritius through the implementation of a technology-based classroom management system that includes the use of tablets, projectors, and associated tools. The chapter evaluates the effectiveness of the empowerment sessions for educators in utilising the classroom management system, assessing their understanding of its functionalities and their ability to integrate it into their teaching. The findings demonstrate successful technology integration by the teachers, and the authors propose a new model that describes the key factors influencing technology integration in educational contexts. The focus of Chapter 8 by W. Udhin and A. Oojorah is on the affordances of webinars as a means of delivering content on an e-learning platform. The study examines the organisation and implementation of webinars, as well as learners’ experiences with this format. The chapter highlights the functional, social, and educational benefits of webinars and suggests that increased attendee participation would enhance the webinar experience. In Chapter 9, E. O. Anyolo and S. A. N. Tshiningayamwe discuss the contribution of a collaborative learning approach to the teaching and learning of education for sustainable development (ESD) in the digital age. The chapter focuses on students enrolled in environmental education and social studies education programmes at the University of Namibia. These students engage in online group work to identify a critical sustainability problem in their local contexts and investigate its causes and effects. The study finds that online collaborative ESD tasks enable students to develop sustainability competencies, highlighting the importance of a collaborative learning approach in ESD.
The final section, titled “STEM and Language Learning”, encompasses Chapters 10 to 13. In Chapter 10, M. Havenga and J. Olivier investigate the active involvement of student teachers from the information technology field in an assignment centred around online robotics simulations and how it develops their digital skills. The study finds that the student teachers develop essential skills through working on the robotics simulation task in the multimodal environment. It also suggests that self-directed students tend to achieve more success, emphasising the importance of encouraging students to develop self-directedness and take ownership of their projects. Chapter 11, written by A. M. Hautemo and M. F. van der Merwe, explores the potential of Wikipedia as a tool for collaborative translation in a bilingual environment. The study involves language education student teachers engaging in translating Wikipedia webpages from English to indigenous languages used in Namibia. The chapter demonstrates how the Wikipedia translation activity can enhance students’ communication skills and improve their language learning performance. Chapter 12 by K. Ferreira-Meyers, A. Barkhuizen, and K. Schmid investigates the training received by student teachers of French in technology-enhanced learning and teaching before and during the pandemic in South Africa and Eswatini. The study also examines the teaching and learning methodologies and principles that the teachers used before the pandemic and how the pandemic has affected them. The findings reveal a lack of understanding of pedagogical approaches, particularly those related to online teaching and learning, among some students. The authors emphasise the need to develop pedagogical approaches that consider the affordances of technology integration and virtual learning environments. The last chapter, authored by J. Naidoo and A. Singh-Pillay, investigates mathematics and technology education students’ perceptions and experiences of digital pedagogy at a teacher education institution in South Africa. It is found that teachers view digital pedagogy as motivating and empowering as it provides them with various digital tools, devices, platforms, and resources. The chapter highlights the willingness of teachers to apply these digital resources in their future teaching and the positive impact of digital pedagogy on active virtual collaboration among students and teachers, leading to improved learning and teaching experiences.
This volume is a valuable resource for educational technologists, instructional designers, and educators interested in technology integration in teaching and learning. The book explores various technologies and their affordances for enhancing teaching and learning experiences, such as the submission and assessment of e-portfolios of student teachers’ practical work through online learning management systems (Chapter 3), technology-based classroom management systems (Chapter 7), and webinars as platforms of knowledge sharing (Chapter 8). In addition to highlighting the affordances of these technologies, the book provides a nuanced understanding of the challenges faced by students and teachers in effectively using them. Through the case studies presented in this book, educational technologists can gain valuable insights into the needs of students and teachers regarding educational technologies. This knowledge can then be used to update existing technologies or develop new ones to address those needs. Furthermore, one crucial message delivered by this book is the necessity for new pedagogical models and approaches to guide technology-enhanced teaching and learning in the digital era. In response to this need, in Chapter 7, the authors propose a new model that describes the factors that affect teachers’ successful integration of technology. Instructional designers can refer to this model, along with the empirical evidence and recommendations presented in the book, to design innovative pedagogies, targeted training programmes, and workshops. These initiatives can address the specific needs of teachers in effectively integrating technology into their pedagogical practices, ultimately fostering a more digitally competent teaching workforce. For educators, including those working in higher education institutions, this book serves as a valuable reference for informing pedagogical approaches that incorporate technology and helping them overcome any technophobia they may have. The experiences shared by pre-service and in-service teachers provide practical examples that can inspire innovative instructional strategies. By understanding the challenges faced and recommendations proposed by teacher educators, educators can better align their teaching practices with the needs and expectations of their digitally native students.
Despite the merits of the book, one flaw is that the resolution of graphs and tables in some parts of the book (e.g., Chapters 7, 11, 12) is not satisfactory, which may hinder reading. Using higher-resolution images and inserting tables as editable text rather than images would be a better alternative to enhance the readability of the content. Also, this book primarily focuses on the South African context. While this allows for an in-depth exploration of the experiences in that specific context, the generalizability of the findings to other contexts may be to some extent limited.
In conclusion, Perspectives on Teacher Education in the Digital Age offers a comprehensive exploration of the experiences, opportunities, and challenges associated with technology integration in the Southern African region. It provides empirical evidence, theoretical frameworks, and practical recommendations that can inform and inspire educators worldwide. By leveraging the experiences and perspectives shared in this book, professionals in the field can enhance their pedagogical practice, inform instructional design, and improve professional development opportunities available to educators.
Review 2: Smart Education Strategies for Teaching and Learning: Critical Analytical Framework and Case Studies (Shafika Isaacs, Sanjaya Mishra)
Review authored by: Paula Marcelle, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Review of: Isaacs, S., Mishra, S. (2022). Smart education strategies for teaching and learning: Critical analytical framework and case studies. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education. 158 pages. ISBN: 978-5-906399-13-7. Open Access: http://hdl.handle.net/11599/4464
This collaborative open access electronic publication on smart education strategies focuses on national educational policies. The publication is part of a larger tri-institutional project on “Rethinking and Redesigning National Smart Education Strategy”. At the earliest convenience, the authors disclosed that there is no agreed-upon definition of smart education, which indicates its fluid and contested nature across institutional and national contexts. This variability in defining smart education makes smart education policy development challenging. However, the authors suggest that smart education involves a philosophical approach as well as the use of advanced technologies that are emerging to spur the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), such as artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), the Internet of Things (IoT), blockchain technology, and learner analytics (LA) which can ultimately improve the quality of teaching and learning.
The authors are Shafika Isaacs and Sanjaya Mishra. Shafika Isaacs has worked on many initiatives with international and South African organizations, including research and publications on mobile learning and Information and Communication Technology Education (ICTE) policies. She also serves as a technical advisor at both UNESCO and UNICEF, working on projects on AI and children and the AI competency framework for teachers. Shafika has collaborated with the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and is a faculty member at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Sanjaya Mishra is a Technology Enabled Learning Specialist at COL, where he has engaged in several projects and research publications related to open, distance, online learning, educational media and open educational resources (OER). Prior to his current role, he played a key role in implementing a strategy and policy promoting open access to scientific information and research at UNESCO. Combined, the authors have a wealth of experience in policy development for smart education and learning implementation.
The authors cast a wide net for the book’s audience, covering the trio of researchers, policy-makers and practitioners. The book is structured as a rigorous scholarly investigation and consists of six chapters: (1) introduction, (2) conceptual framework, (3) methodology, (4) a critical smart education policy framework, (5) national smart education policies and case studies, (6) conclusion. Interwoven across all chapters is the critical lens of addressing the inequity of education systems across the globe and access to resources. Addressing inequity is commendable and is in alignment with United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4). What makes this publication interesting and helpful is the highlighting of possible policy tensions and gaps across the six inter-related policy themes, and for each national policy case study, via call-out boxes in the book. Highlighting these policy tensions and gaps can promote dialogue and collaboration among national policymakers regardless of the policy stage.
Chapter 1 starts by quickly outlining the historical and present global frameworks that have shaped national ICTE policies, which have been influenced by globalization. Four distinct waves of national ICTE policies have existed over the last 30 years. National policies transitioned from a focus on ICT infrastructure access in the late 1990s to technology-enhanced teaching and learning, then to a more pedagogical, learning science, and open educational resources focus. With recent developments in AI and robotics, one can argue that national policies are entering a fourth wave. Furthermore, the role of intergovernmental and non-profit foundations in shaping the narrative and thrust towards smart education practices was underscored. In my opinion, as the world is transitioning to deglobalization, the effect of regionalism and regional supranational organization on national ICTE policies and strategies is an area that can be explored in future iterations or similar publications. A brief mention was made of regionalism’s role in ICTE policies in the ASEAN Smart Cities Framework (2019: 24). Other powerful actors influencing the adoption of smart education strategies are EdTech companies whose combined market valuation and growth rate across the selected national case studies were reported (see page 30). I believe the effect of EdTech companies on smart education policy enactment is a niche area for researchers.
Chapter 2 provides descriptions for a set of foundational concepts and operational definitions. The concepts and definitions introduced in this chapter underpin the critical analytic framework introduced later in Chapter 4. Notably helpful to non-policy makers is the explanation of critical policy analysis and the contested nature of the policy space, threaded throughout the rest of the book.
Chapter 3 highlights the qualitative methodologies used to select the national case studies and implementation projects. The selection of the specific national case studies to showcase was transparent through a systematic literature review with PRISMA reported. Following this, ten national smart education policies were explored using a case study approach. The systematic literature review was guided by the following research questions: What were the design, implementation, and outcomes of ICTE policies across selected countries worldwide, and what are the design features of emerging smart education public policies? Research rigour was apparent as the researchers used four named databases with several search strings reported. Notable in the review was the inclusion of peer-reviewed book chapters and conference proceedings as data sources. Following the screening and exclusion process, 145 records were retained in the final sample. The final sample aided in selecting ten countries for an in-depth case study of their smart national education policies.
In my opinion, the systematic nature of selecting the national case studies eliminated the Global North-South divide where typically exemplar cases from the North would have been showcased. Instead, a mix of country cases was showcased. The ten countries selected for an in-depth examination of their ICTE and smart education policies and strategies are China, Egypt, India, Mauritius, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, the UK, and the USA. The authors acknowledge that differences in a country’s historical, socio-economic, and political context can shape each nation’s policy. Similarly, some countries such as China, India, Russia, Singapore, and South Korea have longer timelines and experience with policy formation compared to South Africa and Mauritius (page 26). As such, Table 1 in the book outlines the case study country by population, history of their ICTE policies, recent smart education policies, GNI per capita, HDI and mean years of schooling. In so doing, the readers can benchmark what countries at a similar economic level have embarked on and are working towards.
Additionally, individual countries can be at different stages in implementing smart education policies, i.e. latent, emerging, established, and advanced (Trucano 2016). Some of the policies’ titles, as provided in the tabular overview of smart education policies, show the thrust towards artificial intelligence as a particular focus among the other smart education technologies. The authors suggest that this thrust may be due to external pressure for national competitiveness. Consequently, several countries possess national AI policies, e.g. China’s National AI Strategy (2021), India’s National Strategy for AI (2019), and Mauritius’ Artificial Intelligence Strategy (2018).
Chapter 4 introduces and illustrates a critical smart education policy framework which comprises six inter-related policy themes and three implementation mechanisms. The six policy themes are (1) infrastructure, (2) curriculum and pedagogy, (3) digital education resources and platforms, (4) skills and competences, (5) governance and (6) management and administration. The three policy implementation mechanisms outlined are (1) leadership, system capacity and change management; (2) partnerships, finance and resource mobilization; and (3) research, innovations, and evaluations. The critical smart education policy framework introduced in this chapter is novel. It provides a context-specific schema for examining smart education policies at the national level that is similar to, but different from, the SABER-ICT policy framework for general educational technologies (Trucano 2016). From the illustration of the critical smart education policy framework (see Figure 2), the broader vision, principles and values of inclusiveness and equity are at the centre. The framework spans policy contextual dimensions, e.g., historical, cultural, socio-economic, political and environmental. Similarly, the policy transitions, tensions and trajectories span the framework’s dimensions. As an instructional designer and educator in higher education, the most important themes for education technologists, instructional designers and educators working in higher education are curriculum and pedagogy, digital education resources and platforms and competence and skills. The chapter outlines relevant learning theories, the trend of shifting to a competency-based curriculum, curricular changes, and datafication of education, among other issues.
Chapter 5 explores the ten national case studies of smart ICTE policy by country. Each country’s section outlines basic demographic information, which includes the current smart education-related policies and past ICTE policies. One strength of the presentation of the findings is the inclusion of the inequity index (2021) for each country. This data point highlights the critical smart education policy framework introduced in Chapter 4, which illustrates the role of the proposed central policy in addressing inclusivity and equity. Additionally, recognizing that the vision of some policies can be merely an aspiration, a government AI readiness Index (2021) is also a useful metric for each country. What I deem helpful to the reader are the visual models of how the different themes in the critical smart policy framework interact as a system for each national case study. The narrative summary for each national case study aligns closely with the themes of the smart education policy framework. The most valuable subsections include the specific action plans to enact the policy and the strategies used to address the AI skills gap at different development stages of the population.
Finally, the book closes in Chapter 6 with a template with questions to consider that address the tension of enacting the policy across the themes of a critical smart education policy framework. Engaging the relevant stakeholders in dialogue using the template will aid in outlining the scope for new policies, exploring the evolving nature of other countries’ ICTE policies over time, and the lessons learned from the practical challenges and activities involved in enacting the policies, and can serve for comparative analysis. Perhaps through recognizing that some policies are aspirational, a monitoring and evaluation framework is also shared at the end of the chapter.
In conclusion, the authors present a rigorous, well-researched book focusing on national smart education policies. The book is open access, accessible and reader-friendly. Additionally, the book contains a smart education policy development template.
Review 3: Artificial Intelligence and Learning Futures: Critical Narratives of Technology and Imagination in Higher Education (Stefan Popenici)
Review authored by: Amelia Taylor, Malawi University of Business and Applied Sciences, Malawi
Review of: Popenici, S. (2022). Artificial intelligence and learning futures: Critical narratives of technology and imagination in higher education. Routledge. 228 pages. ISBN: 978-1-032-20852-7
The book is a critique of the growing status of edtech and Artificial Intelligence (AI) as “push-button” solutions for complex problems facing societies and, in particular, higher education. Societies and universities are experiencing a profound crisis of identity, unsure of their direction and role in a world that is becoming more anti-democratic and is facing increased risks of wars and natural disasters. As the use of edtech and AI is growing, their users find it hard to resist the seduction of the belief that “all eternal problems have become engineering problems” (page 126). The author hopes that, by understanding the links between the colonising force of technology intrinsic to the American model and the weaknesses inherent in AI systems, including mathematical limits to computation, he will be able to convince users why technology and AI must remain tools rather than aims. Universities, as centres for learning and influence, must retain their intellectual freedom, their imagination and creativity. Thereby, maintaining and cultivating the eros of learning, a “deep love for new ideas, knowledge and epistemological spaces opened through learning and imaginations” (page 135). The author argues that despite advances in AI and edtech, there is little evidence for their effectiveness. “In education”, the author writes, “the technological temptation to replace a difficult and lengthy process with a trifle technological solution is very attractive for teachers and even more for those who sell them” (page 48). Therefore, the author’s mission is to bring evidence for the negative effects, both intentional and unintentional, of AI and edtech on higher education institutions. This is done over three sections and 9 chapters. The evidence points largely to significant dangers and damaging effects. The book finishes with the author formulating five principles and a code of ethics to guide a responsible and constructive adoption of AI in higher education.
Through illustrations and examples drawn from the history of AI, engineering, politics, education, culture and society, the author warns his readers repeatedly that the early ideological roots of Artificial Intelligence should not be ignored. They are relevant to building current AI narratives and the significance of the ideological legacy can exacerbate the crisis of identity faced by institutions of higher education and by democratic societies. The book develops an interesting story of how false “narratives of AI” have developed over time and have seduced the imagination of governments, academics, scientists, and the entire world. This was encouraged by the “techno-utopian” creed of the elitist Silicon Valley which “employs most powerful cultural weapons such as the American Dream, to promote its goals” (page 41) all over the world by means of global institutions such as the OECD, the World Bank or the WTO. In pursuit of the American dream, institutions such as these, although they specialise in economy, “shape the agenda for educational systems and universities around the world” (page 69) and promote “policies to change higher education from a domain guided by the idea of common good to a part of the market, as a commodity” (page 79).
The first section of the book deals with the ideological roots of the concept of “intelligence” and how that, combined with Shannon’s theory of information, caused a shift and a significant change in education. The author invites the reader to reflect on some relevant historical dark points in AI and technology. The three chapters of this section are packed with a variety of information and facts succinctly backed by selected quotes. Some points are perhaps over-emphasised and are without sufficient context for a deeper debate about their validity. But they serve the author well in his quest to warn those who see no dangers in a widespread adoption of edtech and AI. Significant time is spent on the definition of “intelligence”, and on the difficulties in defining and measuring it. The author criticises the idea that intelligence can be measured but, later in the book, he argues that human intelligence, as measured by some external metrics, is declining. The link between AI and eugenic theories is discussed. AI uses “intelligence based on the overall understanding aligned with the eugenics movement” (page 25) and this makes Intelligence a dangerous concept, open to “manipulations and misuse” by powerful organisations. Examples of AI systems such as RoboDebt and TayTweets, as well as Stanislav Petrov’s intervention which overrode the Soviet Union’s missile attack early warning system and prevented a world war, and other examples, are used to illustrate the unreliability of rigid and standardised systems and the dangers of total trust in AI and edtech.
The author speaks as a non-computer scientist and directs his arguments towards those who support Artificial General Intelligence or those who are naive enough to embrace it before truly understanding its nature and its implications. The problems of knowledge representation, incomplete knowledge, and the difficulty in measuring the performance of AI systems have been well known and recognised for a long time among computer scientists. But this is overwhelmingly ignored in the hype of AI and edtech. The author discusses key problems with Big Data from its collection through means of mass surveillance to the faulty interpretations based on outputs that are generated. Every computer scientist learns that the input to a computer program is derived though a process of ‘abstraction’ that builds a computer friendly representation of the real world. This abstraction is helpful for solving problems but comes with a loss of information. A distinction should also be made between AI systems that are based on logic and those based on big data and machine learning. The author refers more to the latter, where automated reasoning is reduced to learning by examples from big data. He is right in saying that “big data” is inherently biased, controlled by a hidden agenda on what data points to consider, is inherently incomplete, inaccurate, loses context and meaning once collected and is often facilitated by dishonest mass surveillance. However, the discussion would benefit from looking also at logic-based AI approaches and how and why they seem to have been abandoned in favour of “deep learning” approaches. The hardest questions of computer science remain those related to knowledge representation. Context or semantics are hard for a machine based on numerical representations to capture. The author discusses Shannon’s theory that information or data has value and meaning separate from its context. Although this theory is useful as a basis of machine communication theories, it has negative ramifications if applied to edtech and AI. The author uses Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) as an example of a solution that, although it looked optimal on paper, failed to meet the utopian expectations of offering “free education for all” and especially to the needy of the world. Another example is the use of plagiarism software as a solution to “academic plagiarism” which led to discrimination against students living in poverty, or those with special needs. The first section of the book succeeds in raising many real points of concern, but the reader is not necessarily left better informed about what AI really is, how it is different from general computer science and whether there are any ways for builders or users of AI solutions to overcome the dangers described.
The second section of the book looks at some possible automations of teaching and learning through the adoption of AI and edtech. The author draws from his experiences of teaching in the US and Australia and, to some extent, from Great Britain. Perhaps consideration of how the same issues occur in non-western countries would bring more sharpness to many of the points made in the book. The background is a higher education sector in crisis across the world. There are outside pressures pushing universities into the “area of tradeable commodities” resulting in compromised academic integrity, and the metrification, commercialisation of academic life. Universities and their ‘customers’ place more emphasis on specialisation and technical aspects rather than on creativity. “The concept of beauty, learning spaces, curriculum and campus ethos” are in danger of being almost entirely lost. Edtech applications such as MOOCs, or personalised education based on learning analytics, can cause more harm than good. They are “dishonest” because they often rely on surveillance, control and manipulation and base their predictions on data separate from its meaning or its context. For example, using AI for tracking eye movement, pupil dilation, and blinking behaviour as proxies for cognitive load and affective states sounds like a clever research idea, but it can be full of false assumptions and overly simplified representations of reality.
The third and last section of the book discusses the future of higher education as it adopts edtech and AI. The key problem is that universities’ participation in civil society has been reduced to ensuring graduate employability in a world that is more and more technological. The scope of adoption and applications of tech and AI become driven by imposed narratives and not by users’ imagination. Imagination and creativity are crucial, as “human life is shaped by what we imagine” (page 162). This imagination has been polluted almost beyond recovery by “appealing narratives” created by the media or by the entertainment industry and amplified by algorithms purposely designed to push one type of content over another. “The applications of AI in education stand directly influenced by the engineer’s way of thinking and corporate business solutions” (page 152), laments the author. Similarly, “innovation” is not creative or imaginative but “adheres to the mantra of techno-solutionism”. The author sees the space for “imagination” in higher education as being “already occupied, colonised by powerful narratives” and made worse by “edtech and its jargon, values and priorities” (page 159). Machine learning systems that can generate new content, art and imagery may look creative or imaginative but, despite these apparent advances, virtual spaces with almost limitless possibilities are full of users who display less creativity and imagination than expected. Language models, like ChatGPT, “come with a higher incidence rate for stereotypes and discriminatory text” (page 182). Edtech and AI systems that power learning analytics, Learning Management Systems (LMSs), plagiarism detection software, decision support systems, are meant to improve learning outcomes. Growing evidence shows that the opposite is happening, that while students grow in acquiring subject-specific knowledge, they “are not improving their critical thinking, complex reasoning, and writing skills” (page 167). Despite such evidence, the academic narrative is dominated by edtech solutions with a focus on short, intensive courses that are designed to serve the needs of employers and accreditation bodies. Lack of interest in human attributes thus leads to a constant erosion of academic culture, academics being reduced to technical supervisors and academic operators of edtech solutions. At the end of the book, the author recognises that AI will be extensively used in education to augment human capabilities, that universities have already moved too fast in “superficially known digital environments” that they do not understand. The author concludes by urging universities to formulate guiding principles for a responsible and constructive adoption of AI and edtech and to embrace codes of ethics that place teaching and learning in a specific ethical and professional framework.
The book is effective in creating a forum for discussing important topics of edtech and AI adoption in education. It achieves its goal of warning educators of some real, negative consequences that come either from the inherent design of edtech and AI solutions or from a dependence and total trust in them. The final chapter of the book contains a list of five guiding principles that educators can rely on when using AI. It would probably have been better to structure the book along these five guiding principles, showing how they could be used to help avoid negative influences, confront dangerous AI narratives, and establish the rightful place that edtech and AI should occupy in higher education. I agree with the conclusion of the book, that the complex problems of the world touch many areas such as politics, religion, society, education, and the meaning of life, and cannot be solved by edtech and AI. A question remains unanswered. In a world in which edtech and AI have already been ‘summoned’ by all parties to come forward with solutions, how can education be restored by summoning creativity and imagination?
Review 4: Ethics and Educational Technology: Reflection, Interrogation, and Design as a Framework for Practice. (Stephanie L. Moore, Heather K. Tillberg-webb)
Review authored by: Metin Kocaturk & Michael Thomas, Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Review of: Moore, S. L., Tillberg-Webb, H. K. (2023). Ethics and Educational Technology: Reflection, Interrogation, and Design as a Framework for Practice. Routledge. 328 pages. ISBN: 978-0-415-89508-8
In educational settings, the intersection of ethics and technology has become increasingly significant, prompting critical reflections on the ethical implications of integrating technology into learning environments. The book, Ethics and Educational Technology: Reflection, Interrogation, and Design as a Framework for Practice, by Stephanie L. Moore and Heather K. Tillberg-Webb offers a comprehensive exploration of the ethical dimensions of integrating technology in educational settings. Published by Routledge in 2023, this timely work provides educators, policymakers, and practitioners with valuable insights into navigating the complex ethical challenges inherent in educational technology. With its nine chapters organized around three central themes—Ethics as Reflective Practice, Interrogating Technology, and Design-Based Approach—the book provides a nuanced framework for understanding and addressing ethical challenges in educational technology. At the end of each chapter, the “Ethics in Practice” section addresses the reflections of the specific ethical issues related to the chapter in practice. This review explores the book, drawing insights from the authors’ perspectives and synthesizing key concepts to evaluate the book’s contribution to shaping ethical practices in educational technology. Through this analysis, we aim to uncover the book’s strengths, weaknesses, and its potential impact on educators, researchers, and policymakers by navigating the ethical complexities of technology-enhanced learning environments.
In the first chapter, “The Educational Technology Problem Space,” Moore and Tillberg-Webb examine the intricate landscape of ethical considerations in educational technology. Through a nuanced exploration of technological affordances and a design-based approach to ethics, the authors illuminate the dual potential of educational technologies to yield both benefits and harm. By addressing a conspicuous gap in the existing literature and practice within the field, the chapter underscores the urgent need for critical reflection on the ethical dimensions inherent in educational technology. Moreover, by contextualizing these discussions within the evolving landscape of the COVID-19 pandemic, Moore and Tillberg-Webb highlight the heightened significance of ethical issues such as accessibility, the digital divide, and learner diversity. Ultimately, the chapter serves as a compelling call to action for stakeholders in the educational technology ecosystem to engage in reflective practice and conscientious decision-making, setting out a robust foundation for the subsequent exploration of ethics in educational technology.
Following the introductory chapter of the book, the authors deal with the first theme of “Ethics as Reflective Practice” in the second and third chapters. In the second chapter, entitled, “Professional Ethics as Reflective Practice,” the authors delve into a multifaceted evaluation of educational technologies, emphasizing the importance of considering outcomes and approaches rather than simply categorizing situations as advantageous or disadvantageous. Against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, the authors highlight pressing issues such as infrastructure deficiencies, limited internet access, unemployment, and suboptimal learning environments at home, underscoring the ethical imperative to address systemic inequalities exacerbated by remote learning. By delineating three types of commitment within a code of ethics—towards individual learners, the profession, and society—the chapter emphasises the multifaceted nature of ethical responsibilities in educational technology, ultimately advocating for a reflective and value-driven approach to ethical practice.
In the third section, “The Designer’s Practice,” central to this exploration are the concepts of problem framing, reflection-in-action, and stakeholder involvement, which underscore the imperative for designers to engage in reflexive and participatory approaches to ethical decision-making. By advocating for a holistic evaluation of ethics that encompasses not only cognitive and affective dimensions but also conative aspects, the authors challenge conventional paradigms and underscore the importance of embedding ethical considerations into the very fabric of educational technologies. Moreover, the chapter interrogates the myth of objectivity in design, highlighting the inherent subjectivity of designers and the ethical imperative to acknowledge and navigate these subjective biases. Through nuanced discussions on the role of Ed Tech professionals as change agents and the designer’s presence in instructional design and educational technologies, the authors underscore the transformative potential of ethical design practices in shaping more equitable and inclusive learning environments. Overall, the chapter serves as a thought-provoking exploration of the ethical dimensions inherent in the designer’s practice, compelling readers to critically reflect on their roles and responsibilities in advancing ethical considerations within educational technology design.
The second theme of the book is about questioning technology and covers Chapters 4 and 5. In the fourth chapter, “Thinking Critically About Technology,” Moore and Tillberg-Webb embark on a nuanced exploration of how educational technologists perceive and engage with technology. Through a historical lens, the authors trace the evolution of the philosophy of technology, underscoring the influence of modernism as the backdrop for technological determinism—a paradigm that posits technology as the primary driver of social change. Against this backdrop, the chapter critically examines the concept of technological determinism and its various iterations, including determinism, substantivism, instrumentalism, critical theory, and postmodernism (specifically post-structuralism and constructivism). By interrogating educational technologies through utopian and dystopian lenses, Moore and Tillberg-Webb invite readers to critically assess the implications of technological determinism on educational practice and society at large. Moreover, the chapter reflects on how educational technologies are evaluated with the models of linear development, technological determinism and contextual interaction presented by Barbour (1993); and the varieties of theory-technology’s neutral and value-laden dimensions with autonomous and humanly controlled criteria presented by Feenberg (1999), providing readers with conceptual tools to navigate the complex terrain of technology critique. The fourth chapter extends its critical inquiry to include the metamodernism perspective. Embracing the complexities of contemporary technological landscapes, the authors introduce metamodernism as a lens through which to interrogate the interplay between technology and educational practices. Metamodernism, situated beyond the dichotomies of modernism and postmodernism, offers a framework for understanding the fluidity and multiplicity of technological narratives. Overall, the fourth chapter serves as a compelling invitation to think critically about technology and its implications for education, challenging readers to engage with technology not as a deterministic force but as a dynamic and contingent phenomenon shaped by social, cultural, and political forces.
In the fifth chapter, “Socio-technical Frameworks for Educational Technology”, the authors offer a sophisticated analysis of educational activities through the lens of socio-technical frameworks, drawing upon foundational theories such as those elucidated by Vygotsky. Central to this exploration is the creation of a comprehensive framework for understanding educational technologies, incorporating insights from social construction of technology, affordance theory, actor-network theory, cultural-historical activity theory, and entangled pedagogy. The social construction of technology theory posits that technologies are developed and associated within relevant social groups, highlighting the intertwined relationship between technology and society. Affordance theory provides a lens through which educational technologies are evaluated based on their actual and perceptible affordances, shedding light on the ways in which technologies shape and are shaped by human interactions. Actor-network theory further enriches this framework by emphasizing the interconnectedness between tools and contexts through the agency of both human and nonhuman actors, underscoring the dynamic and relational nature of technological artifacts. Drawing from Vygotsky’s mediating action theory, cultural-historical activity theory focuses on the social distribution of activity, highlighting components such as subject, object, mediating artifacts, rules, community, and division of labor. Through Engeström’s model (1999), these components are elucidated, providing a nuanced understanding of the socio-technical dynamics at play in educational contexts. Finally, entangled pedagogy and Fawns’ model (2022) are interrogated, offering a departure from deterministic paradigms by emphasizing the mutual shaping of purpose, context, values, methods, and technology. Unlike technological determinism and pedagogical determinism, entangled pedagogy prioritizes purpose, context, and values over methods and technology, foregrounding the dynamic interplay between these elements in educational practice.
Chapters 6–9 deal with educational technology and ethics under the theme of “Design-based Approach”. Chapter 6 on “Ethics as Design” presents a compelling exploration of reframing ethics as design, highlighting the intrinsic relationship between ethical thinking and the design process within educational technology. The authors adeptly navigate the nexus of design and ethics, emphasizing how design serves as a synthesis of critical analysis and action. By conceptualizing design as both conception and socially responsive practice, the authors underscore the importance of embedding ethical considerations throughout the design process. Through the lens of participatory design, they advocate for the active involvement of learners and users in shaping educational technologies. Importantly, the chapter elucidates how the design process facilitates the generation of solutions that embody ethical principles such as transparency, consent, choice, accountability, and privacy. Besides, the authors explore the intersection of design ethics and social justice, particularly in virtual worlds and simulations, underscoring the ethical imperatives inherent in creating inclusive and equitable learning environments. Overall, Chapter 6 offers a nuanced and pragmatic framework for integrating ethics into the fabric of educational technology design, challenging readers to reconceptualize ethics not as an afterthought, but as a fundamental guiding principle shaping the design and implementation of educational technologies.
Chapter 7, “Learner Diversity and Inclusive Design,” addresses the essential topic of creating inclusive and accessible learning environments. The authors focus on the multifaceted nature of access, distinguishing between technical, cognitive, and learning accessibility. They explore universal design (UD) and universal design for learning (UDL) principles, emphasizing equitable use, flexibility, and intuitive design to meet diverse learning needs. The chapter highlights UDL principles related to engagement, representation, and expression, underscoring their importance in educational technology. By promoting interest, effort, persistence, self-regulation, comprehension, and communication, the authors provide practical strategies and ethical considerations for fostering inclusivity. In summary, Chapter 7 equips educators and technologists with the tools to create diverse and accessible learning environments, emphasizing UD, UDL, and inclusive design principles.
Chapter 8, “The Ethics-in-Design Method: Integrating Ethics into Planning, Decision-Making and Evaluation Processes,” explores the ethics-in-design method, detailing how to integrate ethical considerations into planning, decision-making, and evaluation within educational technology design. The authors address complexities around the designer’s presence, stakeholder involvement, and societal outcomes, emphasizing ethical conduct throughout the design process. They cover analysis, design, development, and evaluation phases, stressing the need to align decisions with societal needs through comprehensive front-end analysis. The chapter adapts Kaufman’s (2000) organizational elements model for evaluating ethical dimensions at societal, organizational, and learning levels. It also examines the ethics of evaluation, emphasizing the role of organizational culture and leadership in promoting ethical practices. Overall, Chapter 8 highlights the potential for leaders in educational technology and instructional design to incorporate social and ethical factors into educational settings.
Chapter 9, “The Ethics-in-Design Method: Integrating Ethics into Design, Development, and Technology Selection,” delves into ethical considerations in educational technology design. It examines strategy, content, and technology selection through Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and Actor-Network Theory (ANT), highlighting instructional designers, instructional problems, and desired outcomes. The chapter emphasizes the importance of professional practices, evidence-anchored strategies, and engagement with diverse knowledge domains. Ethical content and technology selection, focusing on learning outcomes, affordances, and usability, are discussed. It also addresses socio-cultural foundations, including academic integrity, accessibility, copyright, inclusive communities, vendor selection, and cost-value assessments. This chapter provides a framework for integrating ethics into educational technology design and development, offering practical strategies for navigating ethical complexities.
While the book offers a comprehensive and practical framework for addressing ethical considerations in educational technology, there are a few areas where it falls short. First, while the inclusion of reflective questions and practical links to practice is valuable, some readers might find the discussions overly theoretical and lacking in concrete, actionable steps for immediate implementation in diverse educational settings. Similarly, although the book covers a wide range of ethical issues, it occasionally assumes a level of prior knowledge that might not be accessible to all readers, particularly those new to the field. The extensive use of multiple theoretical frameworks can sometimes be overwhelming, making it challenging for readers to synthesize and apply these concepts cohesively. Lastly, while the design cases included are illustrative, more real-world examples from a variety of educational contexts would further enhance the book’s practical relevance and applicability. Despite these shortcomings, the book remains a significant resource for higher education professionals seeking to navigate the ethical complexities of educational technology.
Last but not least, the book helps readers to use their own experience, to connect to practice, to reflect on the ethical frameworks highlighted, and to develop a deeper understanding of the topic. Design cases included in most chapters enhance the readers’ theoretical background of ethical considerations. Essential and optional reading suggestions at the end of each chapter also guide readers wishing to deepen their understanding in the related area, whereas “Ethics in Practice” sections encourage the application of relevant ethical issues. Moreover, the discussion questions at the end of each chapter provide a fitting way to engage academics and HE students to reflect on these complex issues. To sum up, the book provides a remarkable overview of the subject for the higher education context as well as a practical framework in which ethical issues in educational technology can be addressed. The focus on the process of technology education in terms of objectives, design, reflection, planning, implementation and evaluation, rather than a more prescriptive approach, makes this book a valuable addition to the field on ethics and educational technology.
Review 5: Research, Writing, and Creative Process in Open and Distance Education: Tales From the Field (Dianne Conrad)
Review authored by: Şeyda Kır, Yozgat Bozok University, Yozgat, Türkiye
Review of: Conrad, D. (ed) (2023) Research, writing, and creative process in open and distance education: Tales from the field. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. 239 pages, ISBN Paperback: 978-1-80511-094-1
Dianne Conrad edited the book titled “Research, Writing, and Creative Process in Open and Distance Education: Tales from the Field” which was published openly in 2023 by Open Book Publishers. Dianne Conrad has retired from Athabasca University, where she specialized in adult education and recognition of prior learning. She has edited renowned journals in the field and published books as well as articles on essential topics that have contributed to the field. There are fifteen chapters within the book, and prominent names in the field of open and distance education are the authors of each chapter. One of the greats of distance and open education, Terry Anderson, offered the reader a delightful starting point for the book with an extremely heartfelt foreword.
Conrad’s writing experiences and the impact of positive as well as negative comments on her earliest writing attempts are discussed in the book’s introduction. These insights enable the target audience to gain an understanding of Conrad’s writing journey as a novice researcher in the field. Similar subject areas have been highlighted by the authors in the content of more than one of the book’s chapters, and Conrad remarks that “In these sections of the chapters, similarities can be noted. I take this as a prized agglomeration of seasoned wisdom from ‘the folks who know’, those whose mentoring is invaluable (p. 16).”
For researchers who are just starting out on their academic careers, David Starr-Glass’s contribution “The Way of Academic Writing: Reflections of a Traveller” gives guidance and motivation in the book’s first chapter. One of the concepts addressed in this section of the book that particularly intrigued me as a young researcher in this field is that, although some people measure the success of academic writing primarily by the published research that comes out, others evaluate it by the act of academic writing itself and what they have discovered along every step of the way. The author of this chapter details the procedures and tasks which are required to be accomplished from start to finish in academic writing in a straightforward, understandable style. The author’s insights about the review process, specifically listed under the subheading “Appreciate Criticism,” touch on issues that could assist those who are just starting their academic careers, and receiving reviewers’ feedback on their academic work, to become more aware of their own capabilities. The main objective of this chapter is to provide encouragement to those who have a desire to write and publish despite having no or little previous experience of academic writing. The author examines this goal and claims that those who write and voluntarily share their writings with others, as well as those who choose academic life on their own, are likely to experience a more satisfying academic adventure at the end of this part.
Jon Dron authored the third chapter of the book, “On Being Written”. The chapter has been divided into subsections such as “Why I Write, How I Write, and Technologies of Writing”. and the author leverages his own personal observations in order to clarify to the reader how we’ve moved on from carrying around little notebooks to using digital note-taking technologies. Currently, electronic applications for taking notes as well as setting reminders have become quite widespread, and almost every scholar uses one or more of these applications. In addition, from a nostalgic point of view, I have noticed as a young researcher that carrying a notebook in academic environments can be perceived as having a romantic perspective.
After 50 years spent researching open and distance education, Pamela Ryan’s chapter “What Lies Beneath” provides readers with a wealth of knowledge through her experiences and insightful viewpoints. In a comparable manner Dianne Conrad, the book’s editor, shares with us in the fifth chapter of the book, “Reminiscences and Reflections: No Regrets,” the opportunities and challenges she encountered through her writing journey, which began when she was just a young student, and how her struggle with writing has contributed to her become a skilled writer in this field today. Conrad proposes ten recommendations in this part for those who are interested in writing or are just starting out in their careers, emphasizing the fact that starting is the most important step in the process.
Junhong Xiao discusses and illustrates the motivating components of the academic writing process in the sixth chapter, “Intrinsic Motivation, Agency, and Self-Efficacy: Journeying From “QuasiUniversity” Student to Steward of the ODE Community”. Considering his own motivational factors to serve as direction, the author forthrightly addressed his professional history, the process of moving into the field of open and distance education, and his passion for writing and research in this chapter. Similar to what Conrad suggested in the previous chapter, Xiao offers tips at the end of the chapter to help colleagues who have only recently started out in their careers and to encourage them to succeed with their writing.
With the theme of “1001 Nights of Research: The Good, Bad, and the Ugly Magic Carpet Ride,” the seventh chapter by Jennifer Roberts creates a fascinating initial impression, presumably trying to provide the reader with an authentic fairy tale journey. The author of this chapter advises researchers to identify a specific issue and explore it with the goal to offer direction and understanding to people working in the field of open and distance education. She discusses in particular the advantages of networking, the academic ‘publish or perish’ viewpoint, Imposter Syndrome, and self-confidence, all of which are centered on what she has experienced personally.
Aras Bozkurt’s eighth chapter is titled “Creative Academic Writing and Anatomy of a Scholarly Paper” and focuses on the anatomy of academic writing as well as creative and innovative writing strategies. Bozkurt additionally provides concrete guidance on how to produce an excellent research paper. Ultimately, he points out to all readers and young researchers that there cannot be a perfect outcome or result in academic writing processes, however there is a perfect effort to be performed.
Catherine Cronin’s ninth chapter is titled “Writing and Making the World”. Cronin defines her 40-year career in three phases, which are formal education, early/mid-career, and completing her doctoral study as a mature student, and she illustrates each stage in soft words, comparing it to the growth, change, and maturation of a seed during the sprouting process. The tenth chapter by D. Randy Garrison carries the title “A Collaborative Approach to Research and Writing”. In this chapter, Garrison outlines the research and writing process, and his suggestions are considered strategies. Nevertheless, he advises everyone to explore their own writing styles and seek their own unique artistic vision.
In the book’s eleventh chapter, “Serendipity: Becoming a Specialist in Online Learning,” Tony Bates shares the details of his writing career, spotlighting his good fortune and achievement. At the end of the chapter, he gives ten important takeaways for those who desire to carry out research employing the expertise he obtained from his own experience. The twelfth chapter, “Writing in the Margins: Maintaining a Scholarly Voice as an Executive” by Mark Nichols, concentrates on how writing grows out of curiosity and how writing is related to research. The author alludes to this chapter as a flexible process that emerges from inside of oneself rather than following an ordered sequence.
In the thirteenth chapter, “Indigenous, Settler, Diasporic, and Post-colonial: The Identities Woven Through Our Academic Writing,” by Marguerite Koole, Michael Cottrell, Janet Mola Okoko, and Kristine Dreaver-Charles, a diverse group of authors present a rich chapter in which people in different career periods share their experiences and ideas in a polyphonic style. They express themselves as multicultural and polyphonic. The authors address their sources of inspiration, obstacles, and the positive aspects of diversity while ruminating on their distinctive writing journeys.
Paul Prinsloo is the author of Chapter 14, “Born Curious and in Trouble: Making Sense of Writing”. In this chapter, the author describes how a conversation he has with Rainer Maria Rilke creates a source of inspiration for his own writing. The author explains how, despite the differences between academic writing and poetry, Rilke’s instruction to the young poet in “Letters to a Young Poet” strongly influenced his own style of inspiration-seeking.
The book’s editor, Dianne Conrad, authored the fifteenth and final chapter, titled “A Few Words in Conclusion,” that presents the reader with a scholarly closure. The authors, who come from various backgrounds and experiences, make a significant contribution to the book’s different perspective and broad audience. The field of open and distance education, which includes researchers from a wide range of disciplines, has become an intersection for diversity, allowing people to gain insight from one another’s experiences while enhancing their own learning paths.
The paragraphs above explain in detail how each chapter in the book will be beneficial to the readers. However, when we examine the book from the reader’s perspective, we should draw attention to several crucial points. The first of these could be repeated discussion of similar issues in the chapters. Conrad is aware of the concern and states that the similarities are “A prized agglomeration of seasoned wisdom from ‘the folks who know’, those whose mentoring is invaluable (p.16).” However, for some readers, these repeating points might disrupt their engagement. Another aspect worth highlighting is that all of the authors in the book are experienced and prominent in their fields and the chapters reflect on their experiences. Of course, while this is invaluable expertise for people starting out, it may not be relevant to the demands of academic writing in the modern technological environment. In particular, the integration of generative artificial intelligence tools into the academic writing process, as well as the adoption of diverse frameworks by each country, have brought an entirely fresh dimension to the challenges. As an illustration, in the third chapter of the book, John Dron discusses his personal experience with how digital writing technology has been integrated into our lives and how that process has evolved. On the other hand, while innovations in technology such as AI change dimensions, the process of adapting to new developments and change is similar and the sharing of experiences in this case is also valuable for some.
In conclusion, Dianne Conrad’s book “Research, Writing, and Creative Process in Open and Distance Education: Tales from the Field” is considered as an invaluable resource for educators, particularly educational technologists, as higher education and open and distance learning environments are constantly changing at a rapid pace. Insights from important professionals in the field and stories from the field provide relatable applications for those on their way to becoming professionals. While many essential topics are stressed throughout the book, the experiences and anecdotes offered from many viewpoints on collaborative and creative writing propose diverse techniques for combining technology and creativity to produce a fuller use. Finally, this book is a multifaceted work that combines practicality, creativity, and foresight in a variety of flavors for educational technologists and all professionals in higher education, and especially for young researchers.
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.