Figure 1
Multiple levels as a nested hierarchy following Geels (2002: 1261).
Table 1
Selection of policy documents and other examples for the analysis.
| LEVEL OF THE MLP FRAMEWORK | EXAMPLE DOCUMENT |
|---|---|
| Landscape Broader structural trends and discourses, including global policy agendas, economic pressures, and societal imaginaries that shape and constrain both niche innovation and regime evolution. | Dubai Declaration (UNESCO 2024): A global normative framework that attempts to influence macro-political discourse on AI and education. Further declarations on Open Access, Open Science, Open Research, and Open Education, which are aimed at positioning universal values for society (e.g., access to research or educational materials). |
| Regime Dominant institutions, infrastructures, and norms that stabilize current educational and technological systems, such as national policies or standard-setting organizations. | The Opening up Education initiative (dos Santos, Punie & Munoz 2016) as an attempt to integrate OER and digital resources into existing regime logics – especially those characterised by efficiency, market logic and technologization. CC signals project by Creative Commons (Hardinges, Pearson & Ross 2025) as an example of rhetorical reform within existing openness infrastructure. The aim is a normative balance without legally binding enforcement. |
| Niche Protected spaces of experimentation where alternative ideas and practices, such as open-source AI tools or grassroots OER projects can emerge. | Funding for OER production/usage, e.g., projects in the German education sector, which are mostly temporary and not systematically integrated into institutional regimes, i.e., anchored in curricula or examination regulations (Otto 2019). ‘Openwashing’ – a rhetorical strategy that overemphasizes landscape narratives, thereby obscuring the underlying logic of the regime. |