Figure 1
Example of a specific ‘sale page’, highlighting the straightforward structure of typical auction houses’ websites. Screenshot: Christie’s (2023b), edited by the authors.
Figure 2
Example of a specific ‘inventory page’ of an antiquity gallery, highlighting the straightforward structure of typical gallery websites. Screenshot: Phoenix Ancient Art (2023b), edited by the authors.
Figure 3
Examples of how relevant information are placed on lot pages of a) an antiquity gallery (Phoenix Ancient Art, 2023a) and b) an auction house (Christie’s 2023a).
Figure 4
AIKoGAM partial ontology schema.
Table 1
Error Rates per Model.
| MODEL | ERROR RATE (%) |
|---|---|
| en_core_web_md | 3.35 |
| zh_core_web_sm | 6.17 |
| de_core_news_sm | 6.25 |
| es_core_news_sm | 6.67 |
| fr_core_news_sm | 11.46 |
| it_core_news_sm | 16.67 |
| pl_core_news_sm | 20.00 |
| nl_core_news_sm | 32.36 |
| lt_core_news_sm | 33.33 |
| pt_core_news_sm | 33.33 |
| da_core_news_sm | 66.67 |
Table 2
All Errors and Their Counts.
| PREDICTED | TRUE | COUNT |
|---|---|---|
| ORG | OTHER | 17 |
| PERSON | OTHER | 16 |
| GPE | OTHER | 11 |
| GPE | PERSON | 10 |
| PERSON | GPE | 4 |
| ORG | GPE | 4 |
| FAC | PERSON | 4 |
| GPE | ORG | 4 |
| ORG | DATE | 3 |
| NORP | OTHER | 3 |
| NORP | PERSON | 2 |
| GPE | DATE | 2 |
| FAC | ORG | 2 |
| FAC | GPE | 2 |
| MONEY | OTHER | 1 |
| PRODUCT | ORG | 1 |
| PRODUCT | GPE | 1 |
| NORP | ORG | 1 |
| PRODUCT | OTHER | 1 |
| WORK OF ART | ORG | 1 |
| NORP | DATE | 1 |
| WORK OF ART | DATE | 1 |
| WORK OF ART | OTHER | 1 |
Figure 5
Nodes (a) and Relationships (b) counts by their labels and types.
Figure 6
Nodes with the highest degree in the actors-artwork bipartite network.
Figure 7
Visualisation of the actor-to-actor graph. The colours are based on the inferred community IDs. Graph designed with Gephi (Bastian, Heymann & Jacomy 2009).
Table 3
Summary of Network Measures.
| METRIC | VALUE |
|---|---|
| Nodes | 6159.0000 |
| Relationships | 22390.0000 |
| Average Degree (AD) | 7.2707 |
| Average Degree Centrality (ADC) | 0.0012 |
| Average Eigenvector Centrality (AE) | 0.0012 |
| Average Betweenness Centrality (AB) | 0.0007 |
| Average Closeness Centrality (AC) | 0.2123 |
| Average Path Length (APL) | 4.8148 |
| Average Clustering Coefficient (ACC) | 0.7161 |
| Graph Edge Density (GED) | 0.0012 |
| Graph Diameter (GD) | 14.0000 |
Figure 8
Scatter plots of centrality measures and linear regression for (a) degree and betweenness, (b) degree and closeness, (c) degree and eigenvector, (d) betweenness and closeness, (e) betweenness and eigenvector, (f) closeness and eigenvector.
Figure 9
Gaussian plots of centralities values, with highest values in red and z-Score of each centrality: (a) degree centrality, (b) eigenvector centrality, (c) betweenness centrality, (d) closeness centrality.
Table 4
Table comparing intersecting nodes between the top 50 centralities measures. In bold, nodes that are discussed in the paper.
| LABEL | CLOSENESS | DEGREE | BETWEENNESS |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sotheby Parke-Bernet | 0.331 | 0.032 | 0.154 |
| Royal Athena | 0.329 | 0.029 | 0.072 |
| Parke-Bernet | 0.327 | 0.034 | 0.062 |
| Hˆotel Drouot | 0.320 | 0.040 | 0.139 |
| European private collection | 0.317 | 0.035 | 0.110 |
| Spink | 0.317 | 0.018 | 0.076 |
| Bonhams | 0.315 | 0.021 | 0.073 |
| The Devoted Classici… | 0.309 | 0.010 | 0.016 |
| Property from a New… | 0.306 | 0.014 | 0.020 |
| Charles Ede | 0.300 | 0.022 | 0.094 |
| Collection Mrs | 0.300 | 0.042 | 0.065 |
| Robin Symes | 0.300 | 0.011 | 0.024 |
| Ariadne | 0.296 | 0.012 | 0.021 |
| J-D Cahn | 0.292 | 0.010 | 0.017 |
| Merton D Simpson | 0.288 | 0.009 | 0.023 |
| N Koutoulakis | 0.285 | 0.012 | 0.033 |
| Fortuna Fine Arts | 0.284 | 0.011 | 0.017 |
| Mathias Komor | 0.278 | 0.010 | 0.029 |
Table 5
Top 50 Highest Degree Nodes.
| NODE ID | SCORE | NAME |
|---|---|---|
| afa43… | 0.042 | Collection Mrs |
| 64045… | 0.040 | Hotel Drouot |
| 379f0… | 0.035 | European Private Collection |
| 2947d… | 0.034 | Parke-Bernet |
| 315bc… | 0.032 | Sotheby Parke-Bernet |
| 7b56c… | 0.029 | Royal Athena |
| 00cbd… | 0.024 | Marianne Dreesmann |
| 5705d… | 0.024 | Anton Cr Dreesmann |
| 74ade… | 0.022 | Collection Professor Dr Drs An… |
| e9d66… | 0.022 | Charles Ede |
| e2ce0… | 0.021 | Bonhams |
| 6e833… | 0.020 | Edric Van Vredenburgh |
| f758b… | 0.018 | Spink |
| 7d374… | 0.017 | 2Nd Earl |
| 428a9… | 0.017 | Abraham Rosman |
| 4be3a… | 0.017 | Paula Rubel |
| e4041… | 0.017 | Marguerite Riordan |
| 2bfc7… | 0.014 | Sangiorgi |
| 578b5… | 0.014 | Property From A New York City… |
| 2f2a4… | 0.014 | Anderson |
| 5dd68… | 0.013 | Collection Privee Francaise |
| 63089… | 0.013 | Rugby School |
| 86f9d… | 0.013 | Collection Edric Van Vredenbur… |
| 06a32… | 0.013 | Gavin Hamilton |
| c7a1b… | 0.013 | 5Th Duke |
| 925fc… | 0.013 | Mh Bloxam |
| cff18… | 0.012 | Wou Kiuan |
| 1fa15… | 0.012 | N Koutoulakis |
| 2f7be… | 0.012 | Ariadne |
| 80093… | 0.011 | John |
| 40cfd… | 0.011 | Fortuna Fine Arts |
| dbab2… | 0.011 | Robin Symes |
| 6dd43… | 0.011 | Harewood |
| 98164… | 0.011 | David Bromilow |
| 60489… | 0.011 | George Spencer |
| e0a1f… | 0.011 | John Winston Spencer-Churchill |
| eda69… | 0.011 | Julia Harriet Mary Jary |
| 81961… | 0.011 | Bitteswell Hall |
| 0c4d0… | 0.011 | The Metropolitan Museum Of Art |
| 3d9af… | 0.011 | Lawrence |
| 62272… | 0.010 | American Art Association |
| 40284… | 0.010 | The Devoted Classici The Priva… |
| 37a47… | 0.010 | Brabourne |
| 1459e… | 0.010 | Lansdowne House |
| 45532… | 0.010 | Salomon Reinach |
| aa10f… | 0.010 | Vermeule |
| c2e41… | 0.010 | J-D Cahn |
| a2acb… | 0.010 | Mathias Komor |
| d148b… | 0.009 | Merton D Simpson |
| 502a7… | 0.009 | Art Of The Ancient World |
Table 6
Top 50 Highest Betweenness Centrality Nodes.
| NODE ID | SCORE | NAME |
|---|---|---|
| 315bc… | 0.154 | Sotheby Parke-Bernet |
| 64045… | 0.139 | Hotel Drouot |
| 379f0… | 0.110 | European Private Collection |
| e9d66… | 0.094 | Charles Ede |
| f758b… | 0.076 | Spink |
| e2ce0… | 0.073 | Bonhams |
| 7b56c… | 0.072 | Royal Athena |
| afa43… | 0.065 | Collection Mrs |
| 2947d… | 0.062 | Parke-Bernet |
| 6e833… | 0.038 | Edric Van Vredenburgh |
| cff18… | 0.036 | Wou Kiuan |
| e4041… | 0.036 | Marguerite Riordan |
| 1fa15… | 0.033 | N Koutoulakis |
| bb363… | 0.033 | Gunter Puhze |
| 7a85d… | 0.033 | Property From A Manhattan Priv… |
| 80093… | 0.032 | John |
| 120da… | 0.031 | French Private Collection |
| 5dd68… | 0.030 | Collection Privee Francaise |
| a2acb… | 0.029 | Mathias Komor |
| 10b9b… | 0.029 | Mallett Son Ltd |
| 1be38… | 0.029 | Collection Privee Americaine |
| 399e6… | 0.028 | Plesch |
| 37a47… | 0.028 | Brabourne |
| c51ee… | 0.026 | Heidi Vollmoeller |
| ba195… | 0.025 | Wilhem Horn |
| 0e56f… | 0.025 | Property From A New York Priva… |
| 49b25… | 0.025 | Jj Klejman |
| 37fbd… | 0.024 | Steinitz |
| dbab2… | 0.024 | Robin Symes |
| d148b… | 0.023 | Merton D Simpson |
| 0ae30… | 0.022 | Property From An Important Pri… |
| ae3eb… | 0.021 | E Borowski |
| 2f7be… | 0.021 | Ariadne |
| 2a5a2… | 0.021 | Alan Steele |
| 814da… | 0.021 | Albert Museum |
| 8b875… | 0.021 | Loo |
| 77452… | 0.021 | Property From An American Priv… |
| 63089… | 0.020 | Rugby School |
| bb92f… | 0.020 | Queen Victoria |
| 578b5… | 0.020 | Property From A New York City … |
| 01ab3… | 0.020 | Eskenazi Ltd |
| 66e07… | 0.020 | Property From An Important Eur… |
| 08294… | 0.019 | Safani Gallery |
| a8489… | 0.018 | The Tuyet Nguyet |
| 27185… | 0.017 | The Junkunc Collection |
| dbc68… | 0.017 | Galerie Flak |
| 0c4d0… | 0.017 | The Metropolitan Museum Of Art |
| 40cfd… | 0.017 | Fortuna Fine Arts |
| c2e41… | 0.017 | J-D Cahn |
| 40284… | 0.016 | The Devoted Classici The Priva… |
Table 7
Top 50 Highest Closeness Centrality Nodes.
| NODE ID | SCORE | NAME |
|---|---|---|
| 315bc… | 0.331 | Sotheby Parke-Bernet |
| 7b56c… | 0.329 | Royal Athena |
| 2947d… | 0.327 | Parke-Bernet |
| 64045… | 0.320 | Hotel Drouot |
| 379f0… | 0.317 | European Private Collection |
| f758b… | 0.317 | Spink |
| e2ce0… | 0.315 | Bonhams |
| 40284… | 0.309 | The Devoted Classici The Priva… |
| 578b5… | 0.306 | Property From A New York City … |
| e9d66… | 0.300 | Charles Ede |
| dbab2… | 0.300 | Robin Symes |
| afa43… | 0.300 | Collection Mrs |
| 2f7be… | 0.296 | Ariadne |
| 49b25… | 0.293 | Jj Klejman |
| 66e07… | 0.293 | Property From An Important Eur… |
| 00cbd… | 0.293 | Marianne Dreesmann |
| c2e41… | 0.292 | J-D Cahn |
| c33c4… | 0.292 | Hamilton |
| 5705d… | 0.291 | Anton Cr Dreesmann |
| 9b7d0… | 0.290 | Jay C Leff |
| 5e5a6… | 0.289 | Drouot Richilieu |
| 2bda0… | 0.289 | Rupert Wace |
| 428a9… | 0.289 | Abraham Rosman |
| 4be3a… | 0.289 | Paula Rubel |
| bb363… | 0.289 | Gunter Puhze |
| d148b… | 0.288 | Merton D Simpson |
| 1fa15… | 0.285 | N Koutoulakis |
| 502a7… | 0.285 | Art Of The Ancient World |
| 06a32… | 0.285 | Gavin Hamilton |
| 66cde… | 0.284 | Property From A North American… |
| 40cfd… | 0.284 | Fortuna Fine Arts |
| e9b7e… | 0.283 | Ancient Sculpture Works Of Ar… |
| 10773… | 0.283 | Arte Primitivo |
| 7d374… | 0.283 | 2Nd Earl |
| 9a5c6… | 0.282 | Donna Jacobs Gallery |
| 2bfc7… | 0.281 | Sangiorgi |
| 74ade… | 0.281 | Collection Professor Dr Drs An… |
| 120da… | 0.281 | French Private Collection |
| c7a1b… | 0.281 | 5Th Duke |
| 77452… | 0.280 | Property From An American Priv… |
| a817a… | 0.280 | Collection Louis Carre |
| 741f3… | 0.279 | The Ernest Brummer Collection |
| 0f1e8… | 0.279 | Property From The Harer Family… |
| 817cf… | 0.278 | Beazley |
| dc9e0… | 0.278 | Shelburne |
| bc156… | 0.278 | Drouot Montaigne |
| a2acb… | 0.278 | Mathias Komor |
| b5262… | 0.278 | Comtesse Martine-Marie-Octavie |
| df6df… | 0.278 | Hubert De Ganay |
| 98c6a… | 0.278 | Collection De Martine |
Table 8
Top 50 Highest Eigenvector Centrality Nodes.
| NODE ID | SCORE | NAME |
|---|---|---|
| aa10f… | 0.180 | Vermeule |
| a8566… | 0.180 | American Journal Of Archaeolog… |
| 39645… | 0.180 | Adolf Michaelis |
| 950f1… | 0.180 | Michaelis |
| 06a32… | 0.165 | Gavin Hamilton |
| 45532… | 0.164 | Salomon Reinach |
| ec288… | 0.163 | Archaologischer Anzeiger |
| 345df… | 0.163 | Ann Arbor |
| b5697… | 0.163 | California Private Collection |
| c541b… | 0.163 | Georg Lippold |
| 87aac… | 0.163 | Whittall Collection |
| 7115d… | 0.163 | The Ancient Marbles |
| a93d7… | 0.163 | Greek Sculpture And Roman Tast… |
| fa5de… | 0.163 | Legendary Hollywood Decorator |
| cd934… | 0.163 | William Haines |
| 66eed… | 0.163 | Classical Marbles |
| de379… | 0.163 | Elizabeth Angelicoussis |
| 742ca… | 0.163 | Jimmie Shields |
| 87cd6… | 0.163 | Comte De Clarac |
| aed9a… | 0.163 | Hermann Winnefeld |
| fd02a… | 0.163 | Pierre Gusman |
| 5f1e1… | 0.163 | Walter Trillmich |
| b1507… | 0.163 | Madrider Mitteilungen |
| c92df… | 0.163 | Joachim Raeder |
| 547d8… | 0.163 | Peter Schifando |
| 61be2… | 0.163 | Jean H Mathison |
| 6684d… | 0.163 | Sascha Kansteiner |
| e8244… | 0.163 | Gnomon |
| f480d… | 0.163 | Pantanello |
| ac171… | 0.160 | Arthur H Smith |
| a7bab… | 0.151 | William Petty |
| 1459e… | 0.151 | Lansdowne House |
| cb7ed… | 0.150 | Hadrian |
| 0afb5… | 0.150 | Henry Petty Fitzmaurice |
| 1bd54… | 0.150 | Lansdowne |
| dc9e0… | 0.046 | Shelburne |
| 87b42… | 0.040 | Douglas Hamilton |
| 49835… | 0.040 | Archibald Hamilton |
| 0edbb… | 0.040 | Hamilton Palace |
| bede3… | 0.040 | Alexander Hamilton |
| 891d4… | 0.040 | Charles Townley |
| ac145… | 0.040 | Scot |
| f572e… | 0.040 | Gustav F Waagen |
| 4f2cb… | 0.040 | International Studio Art Corpo… |
| 016d3… | 0.040 | Private Collection, By Descent… |
| 4468f… | 0.040 | Capitol |
| 4a2ab… | 0.040 | Hamilton Archive |
| f1d40… | 0.040 | Singleton Abbey Collections |
| c33c4… | 0.039 | Hamilton |
| 1bccc… | 0.039 | Brandon |