Figure 1
Korup National Park and its peripheral villages (WWF Cameroon 2013).
Figure 2
Natma Taung National Park and its peripheral villages (Park Office, 2016).
Figure 3
Co-management schema for the KNP (Adapted from PSMNR 2012).
Table 1
Synthesis of constitutionality components in the KNP and the NTNP.
| Principle (P) | Manifestations in the KNP of Cameroon | Manifestations in the NTNP of Myanmar |
|---|---|---|
| P1: Internal or emic perception for the need to create new institutions | Community desire to preserve cultural/spiritual values, erratic benefits arising from ambiguous co-management arrangements, perceived pressure from large agro-plantations (e.g Herakles farms) in the near future, need to have a strong bargaining force. | Desire to reduce park authority- indigenous community conflicts, increased threats from outsiders for timber, wildlife, and NTFP collection, increased land grabbing from powerful actors. |
| P2: Capacity for engaging participatory processes that address power asymmetries | Creation of VFMCs and CPs (with diverse representation) to steer co-management process, vibrant women and youth groups that can be coached. | Creation of TPAMCs and VCGs (with some representation from villages, state, international NGOs) to steer co-management process. Local guardians |
| P3: Pre-existing institutions for collective action | Traditional institutions (traditional council, secret societies), VFMCs and CBOs with crafted rules which could be given greater orientation towards co-management | Traditional territorial rules are still recognized and respected by local actors. Existence of customary institutions such as traditional council, religious groups, VCGs and CBOs with crafted rules which could be used as preconditions for co-management initiatives. |
| P4: Outside catalyzing agents | Catalyzing agents such as WWF, WCS, GIZ exist with uncoordinated interventions. | The main catalyzing agent is SPECTRUM. |
| P5: Recognition of local knowledge and innovations | Indigenous knowledge/skills in boundary and fire tracing, domestication of NTFPs, negotiation and conflict resolution. | Indigenous knowledge for sustainable forest use linked to customs and traditions, local conflict resolution mechanism based on negotiation and spiritual belief. |
| P6: Higher-level state recognition and support | Forestry law captures co-management, some representation of diverse stakeholders during consultation, management plans are validated at local level | NBSAP provides strategic directions to establish co-management and recognize local indigenous knowledge. Newly enacted National Land Use Policy recognizes customary tenures and related institutions. |
[i] Source: Derived from Key Informant interviews and Focus groups discussions, 2012, 2016 & 2017).
Figure 4
Co-management schema for the NTNP.
Figure 5
Linkages between constitutionality components and co-management initiatives in study areas.