Introduction
In the face of escalating environmental crises and deepening social inequalities, transformative change has emerged as a critical necessity. Traditional approaches to resource management and economic development often fall short, leading to unsustainable use of natural resources and marginalisation of vulnerable communities. Transformative change is needed to address these systemic issues by fundamentally rethinking and restructuring the ways in which societies interact with the environment (IPBES 2024).
Transformative change refers to profound, systemic shifts that alter the fundamental attributes of a system (IPBES 2019). This concept is increasingly used in addressing global challenges such as biodiversity loss, climate change, and social inequities. At its core, transformative change involves rethinking and reshaping the structures, practices, and policies that govern human interactions with natural resources, aiming for sustainability and equity. This approach is particularly relevant for value chains, which are pivotal in the global economy as they connect producers to consumers and influence environmental and social outcomes across multiple scales.
Value chains, encompassing the full lifecycle of a product from raw material extraction to end-user consumption, play a critical role in shaping socio-economic and ecological outcomes. They determine how resources are procured, used, who benefits from their extraction, and how the impacts are distributed across local and global communities and the environment. Therefore, transforming value chains to be more biodiversity-friendly and socially just is crucial for achieving sustainable development goals. This transformation requires identifying leverage points where interventions can lead to significant systemic changes, such as altering consumer preferences, improving production practices, or enhancing regulatory frameworks.
These leverage points intersect with the governance of common-pool resources – such as forests, water, and biodiversity – which require collective action and institutional arrangements to avoid overuse and degradation. Drawing from commons theory (Ostrom 1990; Dietz et al., 2003), our research examines how value chains interface with shared ecological systems, and how their transformation can align with locally grounded, yet globally relevant, modes of resource stewardship. Importantly, the three value chains studied here operate within Earth system limits, and their sustainability is tied to broader biophysical thresholds. By situating our analysis within the planetary boundaries framework (Rockström et al., 2009; Steffen et al., 2015), we recognise that effective governance of commons is not only about local management, but also about maintaining systemic resilience within safe ecological limits.
In this paper, we focus on three specific value chains that impact and are impacted by tropical deforestation: cocoa from Peru, artisanal small-scale gold produced in Ghana, and forest-based cultural products (“handicrafts”) in Brazil. Each represents unique challenges and opportunities for transformative change. The cocoa value chain in Peru has become a driver of deforestation and social inequity in recent decades. Transforming this chain involves promoting sustainable agroforestry practices, restoring soil health and improving labour conditions – particularly by addressing informality – to protect biodiversity and enhance social equity. This also requires ensuring a more even distribution of value along the chain, as currently downstream actors capture the vast majority of final price.
Similarly, the gold value chain in Ghana highlights the environmental degradation and social issues associated with artisanal and small-scale mining. Here, transformative change could involve adopting responsible mining technologies, strengthening community rights, and ensuring fair trade practices to mitigate negative impacts and promote sustainability.
By contrast, the handicraft value chain in Brazil, led by Indigenous women within Indigenous communities and territories, presents a model of low-impact, sustainable resource use. This value chain demonstrates how traditional practices, and Indigenous stewardship can contribute to biodiversity conservation and social well-being. Supporting and scaling such practices can reinforce positive outcomes and provide lessons on forest management and for other value chains.
The three value chains in this paper not only impact local ecosystems and communities, but also resonate with global sustainability goals, making them pertinent subjects for transformative change. By examining these three value chains, the paper not only addresses their specific challenges but also contributes to the broader discourse on commons governance and transformative change, offering insights into how diverse institutional arrangements and value chain actors can jointly foster sustainability and equity.
The paper proceeds as follows. It begins by outlining the theoretical framework employed, which guides the analysis of potentially transformative systemic change. This is followed by a section on the methodology. The paper then presents detailed case studies of each value chain, identifying stakeholders, examining the social and environmental impacts, and highlighting potential leverage points for transformative change. These case studies provide the foundation for a broader discussion that compares the value chains, explores shared challenges and opportunities, and identifies lessons that can inform transformative change. Finally, the paper concludes with a set of pathways for systemic change aimed at addressing the intertwined challenges of environmental degradation and social inequities, not only in the three case studies but also in similar contexts globally.
Leverage Points Framework
Achieving sustainability in tropical forest value chains requires approaches that move beyond incremental improvements to address the root causes of unsustainability. The Leverage Points Framework (LPF), first conceptualised by Meadows (1999) and advanced by Abson et al. (2017), has become an influential tool for identifying points within complex systems where relatively small changes can generate disproportionately large and lasting effects. Leverage points are defined as places within a system where a shift can lead to significant change, and these range from shallow (such as policy or technical adjustments) to deep (such as shifts in underlying structures, goals, and paradigms). Research has increasingly demonstrated that interventions at deeper leverage points are more likely to lead to transformative change, yet are rarely addressed (Abson et al., 2017; Dorninger et al., 2020; Fischer & Riechers, 2019).
Building on this foundation, the LPF is increasingly applied to sustainability transformations in the context of biodiversity and ecosystem services (Davila et al., 2021; IPBES, 2024; Soliev et al., 2025). Chan et al. (2020) adapted the LPF, proposing eight key leverage points: (1) embracing diverse visions of a good life, (2) reducing total consumption and waste, (3) unleashing latent values of responsibility, (4) reducing inequalities, (5) practicing justice and inclusion in conservation, (6) internalising externalities from trade and other telecouplings, (7) ensuring responsible technology, innovation, and investment, and (8) promoting education and knowledge generation and sharing. These categories capture the breadth of systemic drivers and intervention opportunities, spanning from shifts in societal values and worldviews to changes in institutional rules, technological pathways, and knowledge systems (see also Figure 1).
Figure 1
Levers and leverage points for pathways to sustainability.
Source: Chan et al. (2020).
We adopt Chan et al.’s (2020) framework as an organising structure for analysing transformative change in tropical forest value chains, given its demonstrated relevance for addressing the multiple, interacting drivers of unsustainability in biodiversity-rich contexts and its alignment with recent calls for holistic, systems-based approaches (IPBES 2019). By structuring our analysis around these eight categories of leverage points, we systematically identify both opportunities and barriers for transformative change, highlighting where interventions might have the greatest impact.
A robust and rapidly growing body of literature now applies the LPF and related concepts to transformative change in tropical forest value chains. For instance, Santika et al. (2024) employ the LPF to analyse leverage points for tackling unsustainable global value chains in commodities such as oil palm, cocoa, and coffee, highlighting the need to move beyond market-based measures towards deeper systemic shifts. Cebrián-Piqueras et al. (2023) apply the leverage points idea to inclusive conservation, finding that interventions such as community-based co-governance, benefit-sharing, and Indigenous Peoples’ involvement are prominent levers for transformative outcomes in forested landscapes across South America, Asia, and Africa. Martin et al. (2022) examine land-use trajectories in northeast Madagascar, identifying key leverage points, such as forest conversion and agroforestry restoration, where targeted actions can yield significant trade-offs or co-benefits for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and agricultural productivity. In parallel, related research drawing on global value chain theory explores how governance structures and power asymmetries shape sustainability outcomes in tropical commodity chains (Bush et al., 2015; Ponte, 2020; Schimetka et al., 2024).
It is important to distinguish between leverage points, i.e. the “where” and “why” of intervention within a system, and concrete interventions, i.e. the “how” of enacting change. Our analysis focuses on leverage points as strategic entry points for transformative action, rather than on the specific interventions themselves. Our empirical contribution lies in operationalising the LPF within three diverse case studies of tropical forest value chains, demonstrating how the eight categories of leverage points manifest in practice and interact across contexts. In doing so, we contribute to the emergent literature, illustrating the value of the LPF for both diagnosing systemic challenges and guiding transformative action in tropical forests.
Methodology
To conduct the research for the present paper, we employed a participatory, multi-stage methodology centred on a series of workshop sessions across the three value chains. The workshops were organised in two sequential rounds in each country: an initial round in Kumasi (Ghana, November 2023), Pucallpa (Peru, October 2024), and Rondônia (Brazil, October 2023), followed by a second round in Kumasi (March 2025), Pucallpa (May 2025), and Brasília (Brazil, October 2024). Each workshop convened a diverse mix of stakeholders – including producers, community representatives, government officials, civil society, and private sector actors – with particular attention paid to gender balance and inclusivity. Guided group discussions and collaborative matrix exercises were employed to facilitate open dialogue and collective analysis.
The first round of workshops was designed to validate and refine leverage points and transitional pathways previously identified through comprehensive literature reviews and preliminary analyses. Each workshop provided a structured platform for data collection and stakeholder engagement, ensuring that proposed interventions were grounded in the lived realities and priorities of local actors. The workshop sessions followed a three-step validation process: first, participants collaboratively identified and ranked the most critical social, economic, and environmental challenges within their respective value chains; second, they co-developed actionable leverage points – ideas and interventions aimed at addressing these challenges; and third, participants prioritised these proposals based on feasibility and impact, thereby creating a clear roadmap for activating the most promising leverage points and advancing sustainable transitions. While the workshops included a diverse mix of stakeholders, the data were not systematically analysed by stakeholder group. Instead, the identification of leverage points reflects areas of convergence across participants, rather than attributing specific priorities or perspectives to distinct stakeholder categories.
In the second round of workshops, participants assessed the viability of implementing the previously identified leverage points within existing policy frameworks, identifying gaps and proposing new policy recommendations where necessary. This iterative, stakeholder-driven process ensured that both theoretical insights and practical realities informed the final set of targeted interventions and transitional pathways.
Data collected from the workshops – including discussion notes, prioritisation matrices, and stakeholder feedback – were systematically documented and analysed using qualitative thematic analysis. The data were first reviewed in detail to capture salient points and emerging patterns. The patterns were then organised into broader themes, which were iteratively refined through discussions with the stakeholders to ensure consistency and accuracy. Key themes, recurring challenges, and proposed solutions were compared both within and across country contexts. Thematic synthesis enabled the identification of common leverage points, as well as context-specific priorities and barriers. Where relevant, findings from the workshops were triangulated with insights from the literature review to ensure robustness.1
Cocoa produced in Peru
Peru is one of the world’s leading producers and suppliers of fine-flavoured cocoa, ranking second globally in organic cocoa production. Additionally, the country holds 60% of the world’s cocoa genetic diversity (MIDAGRI, 2020). This unique position strengthens Peru’s role in international markets, offering a product that aligns with emerging consumer trends – an increasing demand for healthy, gourmet, and distinctive chocolate.
There are over 120,000 cocoa producers in Peru, each cultivating an average of 2 to 5 hectares (MIDAGRI, 2020). As a result, cocoa farming serves as an important and often secondary source of income for farmers engaged in this activity. In 2024, Peruvian cocoa exports reached a historic record, exceeding US$1 billion for the first time, with a total of around US$1.3 billion in shipments (ADEX, 2025). The main export destination for the cocoa beans from Peru are the United States and the EU (mainly the Netherlands and Belgium).
The cocoa value chain in Peru, particularly within the Ucayali region, presents both significant opportunities and challenges in the pursuit of sustainability and social equity. As the second–largest cocoa-producing region in Peru, Ucayali plays a crucial role in the nation’s agricultural economy, contributing substantially to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) through cocoa exports. However, this economic boom is accompanied by complex social and environmental issues that necessitate transformative change.
Stakeholders of the value chain
The cocoa value chain in Ucayali involves a diverse array of stakeholders, each playing a distinct role in the production, processing, and distribution of cocoa (see Figure 2). Primary producers, who typically manage small-scale farms, are the backbone of this chain. They engage in labour-intensive practices such as hand-harvesting and fermenting cocoa beans. Despite their critical role, these producers often face economic hardships due to fluctuating market prices and limited access to financial resources and technical assistance (Ivanova et al., 2020). This scenario is echoed in broader studies on the Peruvian cocoa sector. Blanco et al., (2024) highlight that producers in Ucayali experience high labour and input costs, along with minimal institutional support, undermining the efficiency and sustainability of their operations.
Figure 2
Map of the cocoa and chocolate value chain in the Ucayali region.
Source: Adapted from Ivanova et al. (2020).
Service providers, including agricultural extension services and financial institutions, offer essential support to farmers, although their reach and effectiveness can be limited by resource constraints. Government agencies, such as the Regional Government of Ucayali and the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, are responsible for policy formulation and implementation, aiming to enhance the international competitiveness and sustainability of the cocoa sector (Ivanova et al., 2020). Extension agents typically participate in workshops under different initiatives, but these training efforts are often not widespread enough to provide consistent support across the region (Charry et al., 2023).
Civil society organisations and research institutions also play pivotal roles in advocating for sustainable practices and conducting research to inform policy and practice. These entities often collaborate with producer cooperatives to promote organic and fair-trade certifications, which can enhance market access and provide premium prices for sustainably produced cocoa (Ivanova et al., 2020).
Social and environmental impacts
Cocoa production in Ucayali is characterised by a dichotomy of benefits and drawbacks. On the positive side, it provides vital income and employment opportunities for local farmers, in some instances serving as an alternative to illicit coca cultivation. This shift has been supported by national and international programs aimed at promoting legal agricultural practices and improving livelihoods (Dreoni et al., 2021). However, the sector is experiencing several social challenges, including high informality, uneven distribution of value and margins along the value chain, pesticide exposure and poor working conditions. These issues are exacerbated by a lack of transparency and traceability within the cocoa value chain, making it difficult to ensure fair labour practices and equitable distribution of benefits (Dreoni et al., 2021).
Social challenges often translate into economic consequences. For example, the high level of informality in the cocoa sector limits productivity, with average yields in Ucayali reaching 560 kg/ha. In contrast, more structured regions like Pará, Brazil, achieve up to 2,000 kg/ha.
Another key factor is the labour-intensive nature of cocoa production in Ucayali, where mechanisation is minimal. Producers allocate 73% of their total investment per hectare to labour, while only 18% goes to inputs, further constraining efficiency and yields (MIDAGRI, 2020).
Environmentally, one of the major environmental challenges is deforestation. Most newly cultivated areas in Ucayali – and across Peru – have expanded at the expense of forests. Over the past 20 years, cocoa production has increased nearly sevenfold (Alianza Cacao Peru, 2021). However, yields have remained low, indicating that this growth has been driven primarily by the expansion of cultivated land into primary and secondary forest rather than improvements in productivity.
Cocoa cultivation in Ucayali has also been linked to habitat loss and biodiversity decline. Clearing forested areas for the expansion of cocoa plantations often leads to soil erosion, contamination, and reduced genetic diversity due to the predominance of monoclonal varieties. These practices threaten the rich biodiversity of the region, which is home to numerous vulnerable and endangered species (Clavo Peralta et al., 2022). However, this trend may change with the recent EU Regulation on Deforestation-Free Products (EUDR), which aims to halt deforestation by enforcing mandatory traceability and plot monitoring.
Cocoa production in Ucayali also faces increasing threats from climate change, which has become a major driver of prolonged droughts followed by torrential rains – both of which have severely impacted cocoa-producing regions. In 2024, Ucayali experienced some of the worst fires in centuries, devastating cocoa plots and farmers’ livelihoods. Globally, climate change has also contributed to declining cocoa harvests in major African-producing countries, particularly Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. This supply shortage has benefited Peru, as cocoa prices have surged to record highs – reaching up to $10 per kg in 2024 (a surge of over 100% compared to 2023). However, while rising prices may bring short-term economic gains, they also pose risks to biodiversity due to the potential further expansion of agricultural land into primary forests.
Potential leverage points
The application of the Leverage Points Framework offers strategic insights into enhancing the sustainability and equity of the cocoa value chain. Table 1 below presents the key leverage points identified by the participants of the workshop held with producers from Ucayali in October 2024.
Table 1
Leverage points in the cocoa chain. Source: Workshop Ucayali, October 2024.
| CATEGORY | LEVERAGE POINT | EXPLANATION |
|---|---|---|
| Visions of a Good Life | Regional policy on good living as a component in investment projects | This leverage point aims to reshape societal values by integrating the concept of “good living” into regional policies, promoting sustainable and equitable ideals. It addresses the challenge of a lack of understanding of good living. |
| Total Consumption and Waste | Diversification of products for markets (International, national, regional), economic incentives | Encourages systemic changes in production patterns to reduce waste and promote sustainability, addressing limited market access by aligning with sustainable practices. |
| Reforestation program | Aims to restore ecological balance and reduce wasteful land use practices, tackling deforestation challenges by promoting ecological restoration. | |
| Sustainable land use | Promote sustainable land use and reduce monoculture impacts, addressing soil degradation and biodiversity loss by integrating diverse agricultural practices (e.g. through Agroforestry Systems and Agrosilvopastoral Systems). | |
| Ecological production | Reduces pollution and waste from agrochemical use, promoting sustainable practices and responding to pollution challenges. | |
| Latent Values of Responsibility Inequalities | Preventive campaigns (Awareness and anti-corruption) | Encourage responsible behaviour and foster a culture of stewardship and accountability, addressing inadequate state control and oversight by promoting transparency and ethical practices. |
| Environmental education | Instils values of responsibility and promotes long-term behavioural change, targeting droughts and environmental degradation by educating communities on sustainable practices. | |
| Inequalities | Appropriate financing from the National Government and regional Government | Addresses financial inequalities by providing access to necessary resources, tackling limited access to financing and ensuring equitable economic participation. |
| Facilitate business formalisation | Supports entrepreneurs and equitable economic participation, addressing the cumbersome process of business formalisation (e.g. through roadmaps for entrepreneurs). | |
| Training professionals | Enhances capacities and skills, promoting inclusivity and fairness, responding to the lack of development in human resources. | |
| Justice and Inclusion in Conservation | Regulations for forest fires and illegal hunting | Ensure conservation efforts are just and culturally appropriate, addressing deforestation and illegal activities by promoting fair conservation practices. |
| Alternative crops and regulations for illegal hunting | Promote inclusive conservation practices, targeting illicit crop cultivation and hunting by providing sustainable alternatives and enforcing regulations. | |
| Externalities from Trade and Other Telecouplings | Implement geolocation traceability systems, blockchain systems, market requirements (such as the EU Deforestation Regulation) | Addresses externalities by ensuring traceability and responsible trade practices, tackling the lack of traceability in production and ensuring sustainable and ethical global trade practices. |
| Responsible Technology, Innovation, and Investment | Research packages, technologies, validation of the package, certification (IIAP, INIA, CITES) | Supports sustainable technological advancements and investments, addressing the limited availability of native seeds and biodiversity by promoting research and innovation. |
| Transformation of wastewater discharge | Promotes innovative solutions to reduce environmental impact, tackling the challenge of wastewater discharge and ensuring environmentally friendly industrial processes. | |
| Education and Knowledge Generation and Sharing | State intervention and investment in research, communication, and community socialisation | Fosters knowledge generation and sharing to support sustainable development, addressing the lack of education about biodiversity resources and promoting informed and sustainable consumption habits. |
An important insight from the leverage points analysis in Peru is that enabling conditions – such as policies, regulations, and institutional frameworks – are already established but suffer from weak enforcement. The country has developed comprehensive national and regional sector-specific strategies and action plans, alongside robust regulations addressing environmental issues, including the promotion of agroforestry, reforestation, and environmental education. These are further supported by a regulatory framework that imposes sanctions, for example for forest fires and illegal hunting.2 However, limited budgetary resources and institutional capacity continue to hinder the effective implementation and enforcement of these frameworks, creating challenges in achieving compliance and the desired environmental and social outcomes.
On the other hand, market forces have emerged as powerful cross-cutting leverage points. This was strongly emphasised during the workshop in Ucayali where participants identified key priorities such as the promotion of entrepreneurship, diversifying products, attracting investment, and adhering to the EU Deforestation Regulation (EUDR) as critical to securing market access. Improved access to markets is not only linked to increased income and job creation but also to the promotion of more sustainable production practices and fairer compensation for farmers.
Gold mined in Ghana
Ghana leads Africa in gold production, with gold making up 7.2% of its GDP and roughly 56% of the mining sector of Ghana (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2023). Large Scale Commercial Mines (LSM) produce about 65–70% of Ghana’s gold and this is complemented by Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) that produces the rest (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2023; Minerals Commission, 2020). A large portion of the ASM subsector (known locally as “Galamsey”, from the words “gather” and “sell”) largely operates in an informal and unregulated manner. An estimated 500,000 – 1 million Ghanaians are directly engaged in ASM, and a further 4.5 million people are indirectly involved (McQuiken and Hilson, 2016). Despite its economic importance, the gold sector, particularly the ASM subsector, presents substantial social and environmental challenges that require transformative change.
Stakeholders of the value chain
The ASM gold value chain in Ghana involves a multitude of stakeholders, each with distinct roles and interests (see Figure 3). Artisanal miners are central to the chain, engaging in labour-intensive extraction processes under challenging conditions. Despite their critical role, these miners often lack formal recognition and access to resources that could improve their practices and livelihoods (Hilson et al., 2014).
Figure 3
Map of the value chain of gold mined in Ghana.
Source: Authors’ own elaboration.
Government agencies, including the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources and the Environmental Protection Agency, are tasked with regulating the sector and ensuring sustainable practices. Although several policies and regulations exist, enforcement is often hindered by limited resources and capacity, leading to widespread non-compliance and environmental degradation (Hilson et al., 2022).
Civil society organisations and research institutions play vital roles in advocating for sustainable and equitable mining practices. These entities conduct research, provide training, and support community engagement initiatives aimed at improving the social and environmental outcomes of ASM (Basu et al., 2015).
The ASM sector is also significantly gender segregated. Generally, males dominate the sector (>75%) but in some cases female participation can be as high as 50% (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2023). However, there is limited female participation in the direct activities (e.g., mining, sorting, sieving, etc.) relative to the indirect services such as trading or cooking (Benshaul-Tolonen et al., 2019). ASM mining is predominantly undertaken by the youth (>70%), who have received little or no formal education (Mensah et al., 2016) and lack the capacity to invest in improved technologies and sustainable practices. The majority of mining operations are backed by wealthy local or foreign financiers that often remain invisible to law enforcement (Hilson et al., 2014). Currently, a greater proportion of Ghana’s gold is traded on the EU market with Switzerland being the major buyer (41%). Other important destination markets include the United Arab Emirates (31.2%), India (11.8%), and South Africa (10.7%).
Social and environmental impacts
The ASM gold sector in Ghana is characterised by a duality of economic opportunities and socio-environmental issues. On one hand, ASM provides livelihoods for over a million people, directly employing miners and indirectly supporting millions more through related activities (McQuilken & Hilson, 2016). This sector is a critical source of income for many rural communities, offering an economic lifeline where few alternatives exist. However, it is also marked by significant challenges, including poor regulation, unsafe working conditions, and social conflicts. A substantial part of the ASM sector operates informally without licenses, leading to a lack of oversight and increased vulnerability to exploitation and hazardous conditions (Hilson et al., 2014).
Environmentally, the impacts of ASM are profound. Firstly, a significant proportion of Ghana’s gold deposits is located within the High Forest Zone (HFZ). The HFZ is part of the Upper Guinean Forest of West Africa (Droissart et al., 2018) which is one of the 36 globally recognised biodiversity hotspots. The majority of ASM operations in Ghana involve surface or alluvial mining, which invariably leads to vegetation clearance and destruction and therefore significantly contributes to deforestation (Barenblitt et al., 2021; Boafo et al., 2019; Mantey et al., 2016a, Schueler et al., 2011).
The use of mercury and other hazardous chemicals in gold extraction processes poses severe risks to ecosystems and human health. Mercury contamination affects water bodies and soil, leading to biodiversity loss and health issues for communities reliant on these resources (Mhaka, 2017). These environmental impacts are further worsened by advances in technology, such as the use of the “Chan Fa engine”, which facilitates simultaneous mining and gold extraction, enabling more rapid illegal operations often on the blind side of law enforcement (Mantey et al., 2016b).
The environmental and social impact of ASM is not limited to deforestation, land degradation and human health but also to food security and the sustainability of the agricultural sector. For instance, cocoa production contributes significantly to Ghana’s Agricultural GDP. ASM directly and indirectly competes with cocoa production for land and labour (Appiah et al., 2024; Danyo and Osei-Bonsu, 2016; Nyantakyi-Frimpong et al., 2023). An analysis of the impacts of ASM on land use systems in western Ghana showed that surface mining led to significant deforestation (58%) and a considerable reduction in farmland (45%) within mining concessions. Additionally, widespread spill-over effects occurred as displaced farmers expanded their farmlands into forested areas (Schueler et al., 2011).
Potential leverage points
The following table presents the key leverage points identified by the participants of the workshop held in Kumasi, Ghana, in November 2023.
The leverage point analysis above highlights key aspirations within the Ghana ASM gold case study, focusing on the delicate balance between promoting job opportunities in the ASM sector and safeguarding environmental integrity and non-mining livelihoods. Central to achieving this balance is the implementation of targeted measures identified in Table 2. For instance, training and capacity building for miners in environmentally responsible practices are foundational to sustaining employment in the ASM sector while minimising ecological harm. Complementing this, community education and awareness-raising initiatives, alongside capacity building for law enforcement on issues such as waste management, river and buffer zone protection, and prosecution of illegal activities, are vital for fostering compliance and protecting natural resources. Additionally, investments in agriculture and climate change adaptation play a critical role in enhancing non-mining livelihoods and ensuring broader environmental sustainability.
Table 2
Leverage points in the ASM gold chain. Source: Workshop Kumasi, November 2023.
| CATEGORY | LEVERAGE POINT | EXPLANATION |
|---|---|---|
| Visions of a Good Life | Creation of job opportunities (esp. for the youth) | This leverage point reshapes societal values by promoting economic empowerment and reducing dependency on unsustainable practices. It addresses challenges like poverty and labour shortages by providing stable employment and enhancing well-being. |
| Community education on the need to conserve forests | By fostering community understanding of forest conservation, this leverage point helps redefine societal aspirations towards ecological balance and sustainability, addressing challenges such as habitat destruction and wildlife preservation. | |
| Total Consumption and Waste | Mechanise agriculture, intensification/precision agriculture | These practices aim to reduce waste and improve efficiency in agricultural production, addressing challenges like food insecurity and crop failure by aligning with circular economy principles. |
| Enforcement of waste and management laws | This leverage point targets the reduction of waste through better management practices, addressing issues like pollution and land degradation, thereby decreasing ecological footprints. | |
| Latent Values of Responsibility | Training miners on best practices that are environmentally friendly | Encourages the adoption of responsible mining practices, fostering a culture of environmental stewardship and addressing challenges like land degradation and water pollution. |
| Awareness raising in schools | Promotes values of responsibility by educating young people on sustainable practices and the importance of environmental conservation, tackling social challenges related to mining such as drug abuse and vulnerability to disease outbreaks. | |
| Inequalities | Alternative livelihoods | Provides diverse economic opportunities, addressing inequalities by reducing overdependence on natural resources and promoting inclusive economic participation, tackling challenges like poverty and labour shortages. |
| Build capacity in institutions for transparency and accountability | Enhances institutional capacities to address corruption and promote fairness, tackling social inequalities and ensuring that all members of society can engage in sustainable practices. | |
| Justice and Inclusion in Conservation | Enforcement of buffer zone policies | Ensures conservation efforts are just and protect critical habitats, involving local communities in sustainable land management and addressing challenges like habitat destruction and illegal mining. |
| Prosecution of illegal operators | Promotes justice by holding violators accountable and protecting community resources, addressing challenges like illegal mining and deforestation. | |
| Externalities from Trade and Other Telecouplings | Promote aquaculture | Addresses the externalities of water pollution and overfishing by providing sustainable alternatives that reduce pressure on wild fish stocks, tackling challenges like degraded fisheries and food insecurity. |
| Ban mining near rivers and streams | Mitigates negative environmental impacts, ensuring that local actions do not adversely affect distant ecosystems, addressing challenges like water pollution and land degradation. | |
| Responsible Technology, Innovation, and Investment | Increase climate finance for adaptation strategies | Supports investment in technologies and practices that enhance resilience to climate change, addressing challenges like lack of climate finance and promoting sustainability. |
| Provision of fire management, equipment for range officers | Invests in technologies and resources to manage and prevent wildfires, ensuring ecological integrity and addressing challenges like wildfires and habitat destruction. | |
| Education and Knowledge Generation and Sharing | Agricultural extension training | Provides farmers with knowledge and skills to adopt sustainable practices, ensuring informed decision-making and addressing challenges like lack of land resources for agriculture. |
| Build law enforcement capacities | Enhances knowledge and skills within law enforcement to effectively manage and protect environmental resources, addressing challenges like inadequate state control and enforcement. |
Forest-based cultural products created by Indigenous Communities in Brazil
The production of forest-based cultural products (“handicrafts”) by Indigenous communities in the Brazilian Amazon represents a unique value chain that exemplifies how traditional practices can contribute to both biodiversity conservation and the empowerment of Indigenous communities.
According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the arts and crafts sector is a substantial market in Brazil, generating approximately USD 10 billion per year and employing around 10 million people (Dino, 2020:1). However, information on the participation of Indigenous communities in this market is unclear or unavailable. While handicraft production in the Brazilian Amazon is a vital economic activity, Indigenous communities are not benefiting from this income generating opportunity. Community-led Indigenous handcraft products promote forest-based economies and can be considered a form of the bioeconomy, or, as it is known in Brazil, a “sociobiodiversity” value chain (Uma concertação pela Amazônia, 2024).
Unlike extractive industries, which deplete resources, Indigenous artisans utilise non-timber forest products without critically harming forest ecosystems. By generating income through the sale of handicrafts, Indigenous communities reduce their reliance on environmentally harmful activities such as logging, monoculture agriculture, or mining. Having economic autonomy would enable communities to preserve their traditional ways of life while resisting external pressures that lead to deforestation. In fact, Indigenous territories not only have lower deforestation rates and maintain greater forest cover than non-Indigenous territories, but they also contribute less than 3% of carbon emissions in the Amazon basin (FAO and FILAC 2021).
Yet, Indigenous communities in Brazil face several challenges that hinder their economic autonomy through handicraft sales. Limited market access and a lack of business training forces them to rely on intermediaries. Inconsistent access to raw materials and inadequate infrastructure make production and distribution difficult. Additionally, cultural appropriation and weak intellectual property protections lead to the exploitation of traditional designs. Government support remains insufficient, and bureaucratic barriers limit access to funding and formal markets. Social and gender inequalities further restrict Indigenous women’s ability to fully participate in economic activities.
Stakeholders of the value chain
The case study centred on handicrafts created by Indigenous communities of the Tupi Conservation Mosaic, an area which covers 1.5 million hectares of tropical rainforest and is home to 21 Indigenous Peoples distributed over eight Indigenous territories in the state of Rondônia. The handicrafts value chain in this area involves a diverse group of stakeholders (see Figure 4). Primary providers supply the raw materials needed for handicraft production (Petry et al., 2020). Artisans, predominantly women, are the core of this value chain, transforming raw materials into finished products that reflect their cultural heritage and traditional knowledge (Forest Trends, 2023). Distributors play essential roles in preparing the products for the market. Wholesalers, retailers, and exhibitors then connect these products with consumers, both locally and internationally, through various sales channels, including online platforms and cultural exhibitions (Petry et al., 2020).
Figure 4
Map of the value chain of forest-based cultural products produced by Indigenous communities in Brazil.
Source: Adapted from TUCUM 2019, cited in Forest Trends, 2021.
Government agencies, such as the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) and the National Indigenous People Foundation (FUNAI), provide regulatory oversight and support for the sector. These institutions work to protect Indigenous rights and promote sustainable development within the Amazon (Forest Trends, 2021:23).
Social and environmental impacts
The commercialisation of indigenous handicrafts has been remarkably positive, especially for women who represent the vast majority of the artisans. While the earnings are low, they contribute to household needs. Yet, the informal nature of the value chain renders the earnings to be unreliable and more of a symbolic contribution to Indigenous women’s economic empowerment. In some households this empowerment is often contested given the usually male dominated society. For some artisan women, their leadership has enabled them to expand their responsibilities and authority in other areas of their society, including their participation in community discussions, which has traditionally been exclusive to males. This recognition has been gaining traction within their communities and externally. By passing on artisanry skills and associated traditional knowledge to future generations, women-led handicraft production has gained visibility as a value chain that enhances cultural preservation and contributes to strengthening the wellbeing of traditional communities overall.
The environmental impact of this value chain is notably low compared to other extractive industries, such as cocoa and gold. Indigenous artisans practice sustainable harvesting practices that minimise resource depletion and maintain ecological balance. This is particularly important in the Amazon, where deforestation and habitat loss pose significant threats to biodiversity (Fearnside, 2012). By utilizing renewable materials such as seeds, fibres, and dyes when they are seasonally available, these communities generally use practices that ensure that their craft does not contribute to environmental degradation (Coelho Marcussi, 2016:187).
Nevertheless, certain practices can affect biodiversity. The use of specific raw materials, such as certain seeds or fibres, may lead to localised depletion if not harvested sustainably; the collection of materials like clay for ceramics can lead to soil erosion if extraction sites are not managed with care; and the use of bird plumage for adornments can be environmentally sensitive, as it can lead to the decline of bird species populations.
At the same time, deforestation and habitat loss reduce the availability of raw materials necessary for handicraft production. For instance, workshop participants in Rondônia reported a reduction in native species like the Açaí and Patuá trees, which directly impacts the availability of materials that are integral to craft production. Deforestation and degradation also impact the availability of forest products used in religious ceremonies and daily life, such as medicinal plants, and food sources like fish and game. Forest degradation also affects the phenological phases of plants, altering their growth and reproductive cycles, which can further reduce the availability of materials for handicrafts.
Potential leverage points
Table 3 below summarises the key leverage points identified by the participants of the workshop in October 2023 with Indigenous women handicraft producers from several Indigenous territories in Rondônia, including the Povo Cinta Larga, Povo Arara, and Povo Paiter Suruí.
Table 3
Table 3 Leverage points in the handicrafts value chain.
| CATEGORY | LEVERAGE POINT | EXPLANATION |
|---|---|---|
| Visions of a Good Life | Recognition of women as artisans, traders, and businesswomen | Reshapes societal values by promoting gender equality and recognising women’s economic contributions, challenging traditional roles. |
| Internal cultural strengthening | Aligns with redefining societal aspirations by valuing and preserving Indigenous culture, promoting pride in cultural heritage. | |
| Raising awareness about the work of women artisans | Shifts societal views towards appreciation and support of diverse roles, fostering a more inclusive vision of community success. | |
| Total Consumption and Waste | Planting of native species, seed collection program, and community nurseries | Reduces ecological footprints by promoting biodiversity and sustainable land use, aligning with circular economy practices. |
| Native plant rescue | Minimises ecological disturbance and supports sustainability by preserving native species, crucial for maintaining ecological balance. | |
| Reforestation | Helps restore ecological integrity and counteracts wasteful land-use practices, contributing to a sustainable environment. | |
| Latent Values of Responsibility | Awareness (general) | Fosters a culture of stewardship and accountability, motivating individuals and communities to act responsibly. |
| Payment for Environmental Services | Taps into values of responsibility by financially incentivising conservation efforts, encouraging responsible environmental management. | |
| Educational work in schools | Instils values of environmental and social responsibility in education, promoting long-term behavioural change and a culture of sustainability. | |
| Inequalities | Empowerment of Indigenous women | Addresses gender inequalities by empowering women with skills and opportunities, promoting inclusivity and fairness, e.g. through training women indigenous entrepreneurs. |
| Ensure a representative number of women in the statutes of organisations | Tackles systemic inequalities by ensuring women’s voices are heard and represented in decision-making processes. | |
| Empowerment of women to occupy spaces in general | Encourages women to take up leadership roles, addressing social inequalities and supporting a more equitable distribution of power. | |
| Justice and Inclusion in Conservation | Involvement of women in discussions about women’s work | Ensures conservation and development efforts are inclusive and equitable by involving all genders in discussions. |
| Mobilisation and state positioning to guarantee Free Priori and Informed Consent (FPIC) | Ensures Free, Prior, and Informed Consent, empowering Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities, making conservation efforts more just and culturally appropriate. | |
| Externalities from Trade and Other Telecouplings | Partnership with shipping companies | Addresses externalities of trade by improving logistics and reducing negative impacts, ensuring fair trade practices. |
| Arrangements with customers about order shipping times | Minimises environmental impacts and promotes responsible consumption and trade practices by managing logistics effectively. | |
| Responsible Technology, Innovation, and Investment | Programs, projects, and policies that facilitate resources to invest in production | Supports ecological integrity and economic development by investing in sustainable production technologies. |
| Access to credit and craft-specific projects | Encourages innovation and responsible investment by providing financial resources for sustainable projects, aligning with sustainability goals. | |
| Education and Knowledge Generation and Sharing | Promote meetings/workshops to strengthen women’s groups | Fosters knowledge sharing and capacity building, essential for empowering communities to engage in sustainable practices. |
| Better understanding of the craft trade and actors involved | Enhances artisans’ ability to engage effectively in markets by educating them about trade dynamics, promoting sustainable economic practices. |
[i] Source: Workshop Rondônia, October 2024.
The production of forest-based cultural products by Indigenous women in Rondônia, Brazil, represents a powerful opportunity to align economic development with biodiversity conservation through a socio-biodiversity value chain. Despite the arts and crafts sector in Brazil being a profitable economic activity, Indigenous communities remain largely excluded from this market due to limited access, weak infrastructure, and systemic marginalisation. For Indigenous women, handicraft production is not only a source of income but also a critical means of preserving culture, promoting environmental stewardship, and sustaining traditional livelihoods through the use of non-timber forest products. However, these women face significant challenges, including lack of recognition, limited business training, gender inequality, and inadequate financial and logistical support. In the workshop in Rondônia, Indigenous women from various territories identified transformative, community-led solutions to address these barriers. These leverage points include promoting Indigenous women’s recognition as artisans and leaders, strengthening cultural identity, and ensuring representation in governance. Environmental actions such as native species planting, reforestation, and seed collection were proposed to secure sustainable raw materials and uphold ecological balance. Additionally, integrating environmental education, fostering partnerships for improved logistics, ensuring Free, Prior, and Informed Consent, and expanding access to credit and market knowledge were seen as key strategies. By advancing these solutions, Indigenous women can lead the way in building resilient, inclusive forest economies that protect ecosystems, affirm cultural identity, and empower communities.
Discussion
The value chain analyses in Peru, Ghana, and Brazil reveal significant insights into the interplay between environmental sustainability and social equity within tropical forest contexts. As discussed above, each case presents unique challenges. Yet, certain commonalities emerge that provide insights into what could be shared pathways to transformative change across diverse contexts.
Commonalities among the value chains
All three value chains are deeply embedded within the context of tropical forest environments. This shared geographical context means they also share a large number of similarities across the three cases. For example, cocoa is also produced in Ghana, highlighting a shared agricultural practice that underscores the global relevance of cocoa as a critical economic and ecological component in developing countries. Similarly, challenges in small-scale mining are also a concern in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon, paralleling issues faced in Ghana’s gold mining sector. These similarities emphasise the interconnectedness of these value chains across analogous ecoregions, reinforcing the need for transformative change beyond the specific context of any given value chain.
A case in point here is deforestation, affecting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and the livelihoods of local communities in all three cases. In Peru and Ghana, the expansion and intensification of cocoa production and gold extraction activities have led to deforestation and forest degradation, underscoring the urgent need for sustainable management practices. In Brazil, deforestation is also a problem, but its origin lies outside the handicrafts value chain, mainly in cattle ranching.
Despite the shared challenge of deforestation, the environmental and social impacts of the cocoa and gold value chains differ markedly from those of the handicrafts value chain. The cocoa and gold chains are characterised by negative consequences for biodiversity and social equity. The activities in the two value chains often operate with limited oversight and regulation, exacerbating their detrimental effects on ecosystems and local communities.
By contrast, the handicrafts value chain offers a more positive narrative. This sector, deeply rooted in Indigenous traditions, demonstrates how sustainable practices can contribute to forest conservation and the empowerment of women in Indigenous communities. The production of handicrafts involves low-impact resource use, with artisans employing traditional ecological knowledge to harvest materials sustainably. This approach not only preserves biodiversity but also strengthens cultural heritage and social cohesion, providing a model for how value chains can be structured to support both environmental and social goals. The contrast between the cocoa and gold value chains on the one hand, and the handicrafts value chain on the other, can in part, be explained by their differing levels of integration into the global economy, with cocoa and gold catering to vast commodity markets while handicrafts occupy a small, niche artisanal market.
Informality in Value Chains
Across all three cases, the degree of formality within the value chains varies significantly, reflecting distinct production processes and market interactions. The cocoa and gold value chains exhibit a greater level of formalisation compared to the handicrafts value chain. This formalisation is evident through established regulatory frameworks, certification processes, and structured market channels that govern the production and distribution of cocoa and gold. These frameworks aim to ensure compliance with environmental standards, fair labour practices, and market access, although challenges remain in achieving equitable benefits and sustainable practices.
However, for the gold value chain, this formalisation is uneven, particularly within the ASM sector. While formal structures exist in terms of the policy framework and processes to acquire permits for mining operations, the ASM sector predominantly operates outside these frameworks. This lack of adherence to formal structures is one of the key drivers behind the social and environmental challenges arising from ASM activities, such as unsafe working conditions, environmental degradation, and conflicts over land use. In practice, the ASM sector remains largely informal, highlighting a gap between policy and practice that complicates efforts to regulate and support sustainable mining operations.
Finally, the handicrafts value chain is characterised by the highest degree of informality among the three cases. This informality stems from the artisanal and culturally rooted nature of production, where Indigenous communities – particularly women – engage in small-scale, often unregulated activities to create and market cultural products. While this participation has led to notable social and cultural gains, including increased visibility and solidarity among women artisans, it also exists within a context of low income, limited market access, and patriarchal norms that may constrain control over earnings and decision-making. These tensions raise valid concerns about the extent to which such participation can be considered truly empowering. In this context it is therefore important to note that empowerment, as described here, is not binary but a dynamic process: the commercialisation of cultural handicrafts brings indigenous women visibility and a source of income, yet challenges such as informality, gender, and undervaluation persist. This finding is echoed in research that shows that systems are nested and connected and that triggering certain leverage points can have knock-on implications on others (Manlosa et al., 2019; Leventon et al., 2021).
The differing levels of formality across these value chains highlight the need for greater monitoring, regulation, accountability, and transparency in support of the diverse contexts in which the value chains operate. For cocoa and gold, efforts to enhance formalisation can focus on improving regulatory compliance and market transparency, ensuring that producers receive fair compensation and environmental impacts are minimised. For handicrafts, strategies may involve supporting Indigenous rights and cultural preservation, particularly by ensuring that Indigenous territories are protected, while facilitating access to broader markets and resources. This should be complemented by capacity building on both the production and the entrepreneurial sides, accelerating artisans’ business capacities and promoting sustainable practices.
Cross-Comparison of Leverage Points
The cross-comparison of leverage points across the three value chains reveals insightful patterns that are crucial for understanding how transformative change can be fostered.
Societal Values
Situated at the deepest level of systemic intervention, values inform the transformative visions that guide system trajectories (Horcea-Milcu, 2022). Across all three cases, there is a strong emphasis on leverage points reshaping societal values to align with sustainable and equitable ideals. In Peru, for example, regional policies could be developed to promote a transformative vision of a good life that integrates environmental stewardship and social well-being. In Ghana creating job opportunities outside of mining, particularly for the youth, could reduce dependence on unsustainable mining while supporting food security. In Brazil, recognising the role of women as entrepreneurs and traders, challenges traditional roles and promotes greater gender equality within and outside their communities. What these leverage points have in common is that they aim to redefine what constitutes societal success away from purely extractive models towards collective stewardship of shared resources – a shift that aligns with commons governance principles of balancing individual benefits with long-term sustainability of the resource base.
Community and Cultural Strengthening
Successful management of shared resources depends not only on formal rules but also on strong community ties, shared norms, and trust among resource users – elements that enable collective action and mutual monitoring (Six et al., 2015; Benyei et al., 2022). Strengthening community ties and cultural identity is another recurring theme in the leverage points identified across the cases. In Peru, diversification of farming products for markets could enhance community resilience and economic stability, while in Ghana, community education initiatives could focus on fostering a sense of stewardship over shared resources. In Brazil, internal cultural strengthening and recognition of women artisans would support the continuation of Indigenous cultures and social cohesion. In all three cases, these leverage points are crucial for fostering a sense of community, empowering individuals to engage in sustainable practices that reflect their values and traditions.
Sustainable Practices and Environmental Awareness
From a commons perspective, establishing and internalising appropriation rules, i.e. the norms and practices that govern how resources are harvested to ensure long-term sustainability whilst maintaining ecosystem integrity, is a critical challenge (van der Zon et al., 2025). Accordingly, encouraging sustainable practices and raising environmental awareness are another set of central leverage points across the three cases. In Peru, sustainable practices could include the increasing adoption of agroforestry systems, and awareness campaigns could educate farmers on the benefits of ecological production, encouraging the reduction of agrochemical usage to minimise pollution. In Ghana, there is leverage in implementing environmentally responsible mining techniques and raising awareness about the negative social and environmental impact of the current mining activities. In Brazil, efforts to plant native species and establish seed collection programs could reinforce biodiversity conservation, aligning handicraft production even further with broader conservation goals.
Economic Diversification and Empowerment
Commons governance principles recognise that sustainable resource use requires not only ecological sustainability but also social equity: when benefits are fairly distributed and alternative livelihoods are available, communities are better positioned to adopt conservation-oriented practices without sacrificing their well-being (e.g. Maeder et al. 2024). In light of this, economic empowerment and diversification are highlighted as key leverage points across the three cases. Stakeholders from Peru and Ghana are stressing the importance of leverage points diversifying economic activities to create stable employment and reduce dependency on single industries. In Brazil leverage exists in emphasising gender equality and recognition of women’s contributions to the economy, promoting inclusivity and fairness. These leverage points provide communities with the resources and opportunities needed to engage in sustainable practices, whilst ensuring that economic benefits are equitably distributed.
In sum, the discussion of the commonalities and the cross-comparison of the leverage points identified for the three cases highlights that while each of the three value chains faces unique challenges, all three share common characteristics and leverage points that can be strategically targeted to open pathways for transformative change. Viewed through a commons lens, these leverage points collectively address the core elements of effective resource governance: building social capital and collective identity, establishing sustainable use practices, ensuring equitable benefit distribution, and creating the conditions for long-term collective stewardship of shared ecological resources.
Conclusions
This paper has explored the environmental and social dynamics of three critical value chains – cocoa in Peru, artisanal gold mining in Ghana, and forest-based handicrafts in Brazil – through the lens of transformative change. These value chains, while diverse in their characteristics, share a common thread: their profound impact on biodiversity and social equity in threatened tropical forest ecosystems. By applying the Leverage Points Framework, this study has identified pathways for transformative change that can address the intertwined challenges of environmental degradation and social inequities in the three case studies and in similar contexts elsewhere.
To achieve transformative change, three key pathways emerge as critical. Firstly, establishing robust mechanisms for transparency and accountability. To this end, improving enforcement of existing laws and regulations, addressing informalities from both a policy and practice perspective, and promoting traceability and certification schemes are crucial – not only to strengthen trust among stakeholders, ensure fair compensation, reduce exploitative practices, and minimise environmental harm, but also to attract investment and open premium markets.
Secondly, capacity-building programmes tailored to the needs of diverse communities. These programmes must equip stakeholders with the technical knowledge and social skills necessary to transition to sustainable practices. Training on sustainable land use, resource-efficient technologies, and alternative livelihoods can empower communities to adopt and benefit economically from sustainable practices. Importantly, these programmes must be inclusive, ensuring that women, youth, and other underrepresented groups are actively involved to ensure equitable benefits.
Lastly, collaboration among stakeholders is indispensable. Governments, civil society, private sector actors, and local communities must work together to implement these transitional pathways. Public-private partnerships can fund traceability systems and sustainable technologies, while civil society organisations can advocate for equitable policies and certification and provide capacity-building support. Indigenous and local communities, as stewards of biodiversity and cultural heritage, must be central to these efforts to ensure that interventions are inclusive and contextually appropriate.
Importantly, these pathways for transformative change are fundamentally intertwined with the governance of common-pool resources. The value chains examined here interface directly with shared ecological systems whose sustainability depends on collective action and robust institutional arrangements. Our findings demonstrate that effective value chain transformation cannot be achieved through market mechanisms or individual interventions alone; rather, it requires strengthening the commons governance structures that underpin resource stewardship. The leverage points identified across all three cases align closely with the principles of commons theory: clear resource boundaries, participatory decision-making, monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, and nested institutional arrangements that connect local practices to broader governance frameworks. By recognising value chains not merely as economic structures but as governance systems that mediate access to and use of shared resources, we can better understand how their transformation contributes to both local and global sustainability within planetary boundaries.
Notes
[2] More detailed descriptions of the workshops and the methodology can be found at https://zenodo.org/records/17592450.
[3] Regional Strategy and Action Plan for Biological Diversity of Ucayali 2022–2030 (ERDB).
REGIONAL ORDINANCE 010–2022-GRU-CR, https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2345808-1.
Regional Climate Change Strategy of Ucayali to 2030 (ERCCU), REGIONAL ORDINANCE 013–2024-GRU-CR, https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2345808-1.
Regional Strategy for the Promotion of BioTrade with an Agroecological Approach of Ucayali and Action Plan to 2028 (ERPB), REGIONAL ORDINANCE 019–2023-GRU-CR, https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/dispositivo/NL/2248979-1.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe programme through the BIOTRAILS project number: 101082008.3 We also thank Ilkhom Soliev, Agnes Zolyomi, as well as anonymous reviewers for helpful comments. We thank Forest Trends and Green Data for their support with the Handicrafts case study.
Competing Interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.