Table 1
Direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss with examples. Source: authors’ compilation based on IPBES (2019a).
| DRIVERS | TYPES | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| Direct | Land/sea-use change | Expansion of agriculture |
| Overexploitation of plants and animals/Resource Extraction | Freshwater withdrawals | |
| Pollution | Contaminants in water | |
| Climate Change | Temperature rise | |
| Invasive alien species (IAS) | Pressures on native species | |
| Indirect | Inadequate Sociocultural and Social Values7 | Instrumental human-nature values |
| Economic | Increased material consumption Concentrated production | |
| Governance | Uncoordinated conservation policies | |
| Demographic | Lack of human capital (e.g., education, skills) | |
| Technological | Technological changes in primary sectors (e.g., agriculture) |
Figure 1
Fashion Value Chain. Source: Frederick & Cassill (2009).
Figure 2
Summary of our analytical framework. White arrows represent interactions and feedbacks. Source: own making based on IPBES (2019b).
Figure 3
Summary of results.
Table 2
Key findings on direct drivers at the intersection of fashion and biodiversity.
| DIRECT DRIVERS | LAND USE CHANGE (LUC)9 | POLLUTION (MAINLY WATER POLLUTION)10 | CLIMATE CHANGE11 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Supply chain activity | Raw material extraction stage | Manufacturing and (in lesser extent) raw material extraction, consumer use, and product’s end-of-life | Difficult to establish due to global interconnections |
| Contribution of the fashion industry | General: 35% more land projected for raw material production by 203012 Plant-based fibres: cotton uses 2.5% of global cropland; 73% irrigated fields; 10,000–20,000 litres of water per kg13 Animal fibres/materials (e.g. leather): 26% of the planet’s ice-free land used for grazing; 33% of cropland for feed production14 MMCFs (e.g. viscose): 150 million trees logged annually, 30% from endangered, 50% from uncertified forests15 | Whole textile, apparel and fashion industry: 93 billion cubic meters of water usage and 20% of global water waste,16 4% of global water withdrawal,17 7% of groundwater and drinking water losses globally18 Manufacturing (textile dying and treatment): toxic chemical and microplastics in water;19 20–25% of global industrial water pollution.20 Chemical release in air and ground21 Raw material extraction: cotton cultivation (pesticide and fertiliser pollution, 22.5% of global insecticide use, 10% pesticide use)22, livestock (water pollution by manure, antibiotics, hormones, fertilizers)23 Consumer use: microplastic release through washing, 35% of microplastics in oceans come from textiles24 | General: fashion drives GHG emissions and accelerates climate change. 1.7 billion tons of CO2, 8–10% of global GHG emissions;25 fourth largest emitting sector;26 70% of GHG emissions stem from raw material extraction and manufacturing27 Manufacturing: 2/3 of that 70% are associated with synthetic material production and manufacturing.28 Energy intense processes (e.g., leather tanning)29 Raw material extraction: fossil fuels (i.e., for fertilisers and pesticides); land use change, expansion of cultivation and grazing; emissions from livestock30 Consumer use: energy use in washing, dying, ironing31 End-of-life: landfills and incineration releasing GHGs32 |
| Impact on biodiversity | Plant-based fibres: ecosystem conversion, habitat fragmentation, land erosion, loss of soil quality Animal fibres/materials: expansion of rangeland, habitat conversion and fragmentation, soil degradation; decline of species, soil microbes and organic matter MMCFs: deforestation (e.g., Canada, Brazilian Amazon); less food, shelter, and breeding habitat for animals; changes in nutrient and soil acidification for plants | Manufacturing: contaminations of waterways, destruction of freshwater and marine habitats Raw material extraction: cotton cultivation (contamination of soil and water, destruction of insect populations, reduction of soil microorganisms), livestock (pollution of water and land, oxygen depletion of aquatic ecosystems, soil and water acidification; species loss) Consumer use: microplastic and detergent pollution impacting freshwater and marine life | Sea level rise leading to vulnerability of coastal areas and wetlands, habitat reduction Changes in temperature and extreme events affect species behaviour and ecosystem functions |