Figure 1
Structure of the social-ecological systems (SES) framework.
Note: Adapted from McGinnis & Ostrom (2014).
Table 1
Initially selected variables for social-ecological system (SES) of wetlands in Cali.
| FIRST-TIER VARIABLES1 | SECOND-TIER VARIABLES1 | THIRD-TIER VARIABLES1 | IMPORTANCE IN THE STUDY AREA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Resource systems (RS) | RS3 – Size of resource system | There are significant differences in the sizes of wetlands (DAGMA, 2018a). | |
| Governance systems (GS) | GS5 – Operational-choice rules | There are different governance systems among urban and peri-urban wetlands. Property-rights systems and organizations are considered in this variable (DAGMA, 2018a; POT, 2014). | |
| Actors (A) | A1 – Number of relevant actors | The larger wetlands have heterogeneous actors involved and various factors affecting their ecological conditions (Contreras, 2006; CVC, 2006; CVC, 2010). | |
| A2 – Socioeconomic attributes | A2(a) Socioeconomic groups excluded | People living around wetlands in low-income areas have suffered from exclusion by society and public bodies (Contreras, 2006; CVC, 2006; CVC, 2010). | |
| A5 – Leadership/entrepreneurship | There are community leaders involved in wetland management (DAGMA, 2012a;CVC, 2010) | ||
| A6 – Norms (trust-reciprocity)/social capital | The urban environmental authority directs its actions towards sharing knowledge about the benefits of wetlands among the inhabitants (DAGMA, 2018a). | ||
| A8 – Importance of resource (dependence) | The livelihoods of rural inhabitants depended on wetlands in the past (Contreras, 2006; CVC, 2006). | ||
| Interactions (I) | I8 – Networking activities | I8(a) Networking with government | There are formal mechanisms in which inhabitants can be involved in co-management of wetlands (POT, 2014). |
| I9 – Monitoring activities and sanctioning rules | The legal framework outlines the permitted uses of wetlands and the repercussions of failing to comply (DAGMA, 2018a; POT, 2014). | ||
| Outcomes (O) | O1 – Social performance measures (e.g., efficiency, equity, accountability, sustainability) | Groups of inhabitants living in high-income areas have organized themselves to protect wetlands (e.g., against an infrastructure project3). | |
| O2 – Ecological performance measures (e.g., overharvested, resilience, biodiversity, sustainability) | O2(a)2 Quality of the units O2(b)2 Maintenance of the resource O2(c)2 Condition of the resource due to its use | Pollution patterns have affected ecological conditions of wetlands (Contreras, 2006; CVC, 2006; CVC, 2010; DAGMA (2018b). | |
| Related ecosystems (ECO) | ECO2 – Pollution patterns | Relevant for the study area in wetlands located in low-income areas(Contreras, 2006; CVC, 2006; CVC, 2010; DAGMA (2018b). |
[i] Note: 1According to the classification of McGinnis & Ostrom (2014) and Nagendra & Ostrom (2014); 2Based on coding questions by Brady & Ratajczyk (2015); 3See https://www.facebook.com/Zanjón del Burro (accessed on 2 March 2022).
Table 2
Ecosystem services within the SES of Cali.
| GROUP | ES1 | IMPORTANCE IN THE STUDY AREA2 |
|---|---|---|
| Provisioning | ES1 – Food ES2 – Water ES3 – Raw materials ES4 – Genetic resources ES5 – Medicinal resources ES6 – Ornamental resources | Biomass for nutrition; water for nutrition; biomass for material; water as material; metal and non-metal abiotic materials; biomass for energy; renewable abiotic source; non-renewable abiotic source. |
| Regulating | ES7 – Air quality regulation ES8 – Climate regulation ES9 – Moderation of extreme events ES10 – Regulation of water flows ES11 – Waste treatment ES12 – Prevention of erosion ES13 – Maintenance of soil fertility ES14 – Pollination ES15 – Biological control | Mediation by living systems; mass flows; liquid flows; gas/air flows; pest and disease control; soil formation and composition; maintenance of water chemical composition water and atmospheric composition. |
| Habitat | ES16 – Maintenance of life cycles3 ES17 – Genetic diversity | Life cycle maintenance; habitat and gene pool protection. |
| Cultural | ES18 – Aesthetic information ES19 – Opportunities for recreation and tourism ES20 – Inspiration for culture, art and design ES21 – Spiritual experience ES22 – Information for cognitive development ES23 – Existence and bequest values3 | Physical experience; intellectual and representative experience; spiritual and/or emblematic experience; natural intrinsic existence and value. |
Figure 2
Events over time influencing the wetlands of Cali.
Note: 1CVC (2006, 2010); 2See https://ejatlas.org/conflict/represa-la-salvajina-colombia (accessed on 11 May 2023); 3A Boeing 757–223 crashed in the mountains of Buga, Colombia. As a result, 4 out 155 passengers survived from the 965 flight. See https://www.elpais.com.co/especiales/accidente-vuelo-965/ (accessed on 11 May 2023); 4CVC (2010); 5At the moment of this study; 6Today closed.
Figure 3
Study area located in Cali (Colombia).
Note: The geographical coordinates were taken by the European Monitoring Centre of 2018 and the Spatial Data Infrastructure of Cali and resolution 055 of 2018 by the Administrative Department of Environmental Management of Cali (DAGMA). The built-up area of Cali is shown in orange. Urban wetlands are shown in purple. Peri-urban wetlands are shown in violet. Cauca river is shown in blue. Note that most of the wetlands are small in their extension. The inventory of urban and peri-urban wetlands is available upon request.
Table 3
Grid for the selection of wetlands.
| WETLAND | SOCIOECONOMIC | PHYSICAL-ECOLOGICAL | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| INCOME LEVEL1 | PROPERTY-RIGHTS | GOVERNANCE SYSTEM2 | POPULATION DENSITY3 | PUBLIC INVESTMENT4 | ha5 | POLLUTION | |
| Urban | |||||||
| Charco Azul | Low | Public | A, B, C, D | 306.0 | 4,303.2 | 7.5 | Sewage, rubble, garbage (CVC, 2010) |
| La Babilla | High | Public | A, D | 24.3 | 2,971.6 | 0.9 | Sewage (DAGMA, 2012b) |
| Javeriana | High | Private | A | 0.4 | Non-relevant (Arias, 2018) | ||
| Acequia Grande | High | Private | A | 0.2 | Information not available | ||
| Peri-urban | |||||||
| Pacheco | Low | Public | C, D | 3.7 | 572.4 | 7.0 | Leachate DAGMA (2018b) |
| Hormiguero complex | Low | Public /Private | C, D | 1.1 | 561.4 | 138.4 | Fillings, fertilizers DAGMA (2018b) |
| Las Garzas | High | Public | A, C, D | 0.5 | 20,060.7 | 0.8 | Fertilizers, sewage, detergents (DAGMA, 2012a) |
| Club Farallones | High | Private | C | 6.7 | Information not available | ||
[i] Note: 1Zone of the city in which the wetland is located; 2A: Administrative Department of Environmental Management of Cali (DAGMA), B: Municipal Companies of Cali (EMCALI), C: Regional Autonomous Corporation of Valle del Cauca (CVC), D: City council; 3Inhabitants/hectare for comuna11 or corregimiento12; 4Total public budget in COP million (1USD = 3,743.09COP) for comuna or corremiento (DAGMA, 2018a; DAP, 2022); 5Hectares.
Table 4
Selection of units of information.
| WETLAND | SUBTOTAL | LOW-INCOME LEVEL | HIGH-INCOME LEVEL | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MEN | WOMEN | MEN | WOMEN | ||
| Urban public | 8 | ||||
| Charco Azul | 2 | 2 | |||
| La Babilla | 2 | 2 | |||
| Urban private | 6 | ||||
| Javeriana | 2 | 2 | |||
| Acequia grande | 2 | 01 | |||
| Peri-urban | 15 | ||||
| Pacheco | 2 | 2 | |||
| Hormiguero complex | 2 | 2 | |||
| Las Garzas | 2 | 2 | |||
| Club Farallones | 2 | 1 | |||
| Subtotal by type | 6 | 6 | 10 | 7 | |
| Subtotal by income levels | 12 | 17 | |||
| Total | 29 | ||||
[i] Note: 1Women not available or willing to take part in the study.
Table 5
Main variables identified in the social-ecological system (SES) of selected wetlands in Cali and descriptive analysis.
| FIRST-TIER VARIABLES | SECOND-TIER VARIABLES | THIRD-TIER VARIABLES | URBAN | PERI-URBAN | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CHARCO AZUL | LA BABILLA | JAVERIANA | ACEQUIA GRANDE | PACHECO | HORMIGUERO COMPLEX | LAS GARZAS | CLUB FARALLONES | |||
| Resource system (RS) | RS3 – Size of resource system | Large(–) | Moderate | Small | Small | Large(–) | Large(–) | Moderate | Large | |
| Governance systems (GS) | GS4 – Property-rights system | Defines relations | Defines relations | Limits access | Limits access | Limits access | Limits access | Defines relations | Limits access | |
| GS5 – Operational-choice rules | Public/community/irregular settlements | Public/community | Self-managed/ Private/public | Self-managed/ Private/public | Irregular settlements/private/public | Private/public | Public/community | Self-managed/ Private/public | ||
| GS8 – Monitoring and sanctioning rules | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | Existence of norms | ||
| Actors (A) | A1 – Number of relevant actors | Large | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | Small | Small | Small | Small | |
| A2 – Socioeconomic attributes | A2(a) – Socioeconomic groups excluded | Yes | Latent | No | Latent | Yes | Yes | No | Latent | |
| A3 – History or past experiences | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | ||
| A5 – Leadership/entrepreneurship | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | ||
| A6 – Norms (trust-reciprocity)/social capital | A6(a) – formal | Low | High | High | High | Low | Low | High | High | |
| A6(b) – informal | High | High | Low | High | High | High | High | Low | ||
| A7 – Knowledge of SES/mental models | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | ||
| A8 – Importance of resource (dependence) | A8(a) – Economic dependence | Moderate | Low | Low | Low | Disrupted | Disrupted | Low | Low | |
| A8(b) – Personal benefit (well-being) | High | High | High | High | Disrupted | Disrupted | High | High | ||
| Interactions (I) | I2 – Information sharing | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | |
| I3 – Deliberation processes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| I4 – Conflicts | High | Moderate | Low | Low | High | High | Low | Low | ||
| I5 – Investment activities | I5(a) – Public investment activities | Moderate | Moderate | Low | Low | High | ||||
| I5(b) – Own investment activities | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | ||
| I7 – Self-organizing activities | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| I8 – Networking activities | I8(a) With government | High | High | Moderate | Low | High | High | High | Low | |
| I8(b) With non-government organizations | Moderate | Low | No | No | Moderate | No | Low | High | ||
| I8(c) With social networks | High | High | Low | Low | Low | Low | High | High | ||
| I8(d) With neighbours | High | High | Moderate | Moderate | High | High | Moderate | Moderate | ||
| I9 – Monitoring activities | I9(a) – Informal monitoring activities | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | Present | |
| Outcomes (O) | O1 – Social performance measures | Low(+) | High | No | No | Low | Low | Moderate | No | |
| O2 – Ecological performance measures | O2(a) Quality of the units | Moderate(–) | Moderate (–) | High | High | Moderate (–) | Low | Moderate (–) | High | |
| O2(b) Maintenance of the resource | Moderate | Moderate | High | High | Moderate (–) | Low | High | High | ||
| O2(c) Condition of the resource due to the use | Improved | Improved | Improved | Improved | Worsen | Worsen | Improved | Improved | ||
| Related ecosystems (ECO) | ECO2 – Pollution patterns | High(–) | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | Low | |
[i] Note: (–) and (+) indicated negative or positive changes through the years; grey color indicates descriptive analysis for initially selected variables.
Figure 4
Barriers to and facilitators of collective actions in selected wetlands.
Note: Barriers: [1] A1, A2a, A8 (non-dependence), I4; [2] GS4, GS5 (private-public); and [3] RS3, ECO2 affected provisioning, regulating and habitat ecosystem services (ES). Facilitators: [4] A3, A5, A6, A7, A8 (dependence), I2, I3, I5, I7, I9; and [5] GS5 (public-community or self-managed), GS8, I8 enhanced provisioning, regulating, habitat and cultural ES.
Table 6
Ecosystem services identified in the social-ecological system (SES) of selected wetlands in Cali.
| GROUP | ES1 | EXAMPLES | URBAN | PERI-URBAN | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| CHARCO AZUL | LA BABILLA | JAVERIANA | ACEQUIA GRANDE | PACHECO | HORMIGUERO COMPLEX | LAS GARZAS | CLUB FARALLONES | |||
| Provisioning | ES1 – Food | Fish and community orchards, water for agricultural use, fibers, endemic flora and orchids. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| ES2 – Water | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES3 – Raw materials | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | ||
| ES4 – Genetic resources | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | ||
| ES5 – Medicinal resources | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | No | ||
| ES6 – Ornamental resources | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | ||
| Regulating | ES7 – Air quality regulation | Reduction of heat islands, decrease in flood risk, biomass formation, water filter, fruit and seed production, thanks to pollinators. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
| ES8 – Climate regulation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES9 – Moderation of extreme events | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES10 – Regulation of water flows | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES11 – Waste treatment | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES12 – Prevention of erosion | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | ||
| ES13 – Maintenance of soil fertility | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | ||
| ES14 – Pollination | Yes | No | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | ||
| ES15 – Biological control | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | ||
| Habitat | ES16 – Maintenance of life cycles | Migratory and endemic species. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| ES17 – Genetic diversity | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| Cultural | ES18 – Aesthetic information | Contemplation activities, passive or active recreation, bird watching, memorials, activities of religious groups, environmental education, as well as myths and legacy of the city. | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
| ES19 – Opportunities for recreation and tourism | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES20 – Inspiration for culture, art and design | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES21 – Spiritual experience | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES22 – Information for cognitive development | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| ES23 – Existence and bequest values | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| Disservices | Social, biological, ecological | Illegal settlements, insecurity, corruption, violence, sale and consumption of drugs, rubble, bad odor, mosquito proliferation, domestic animals | Flooding risk, domestic animals, misuses, consumption of drugs, many tourists, nearby construction | Flooding risk, fungi, mosquito proliferation, allergies, aggressive geese, sediments, nearby construction | Flooding risk, mosquito proliferation, fungi, sediments, nearby construction | Illegal settlements, insecurity, political decisions, deforestation leachate, fertilizers, flooding risk | Flooding risk, pollution, fillings, nuisance of landowners | Flooding risk, domestic animals, misuses, many photographs, nearby construction | Flooding risk, mosquito proliferation, nearby construction | |
[i] Note: 1According to the ecosystem services classification of TEEB, (2010).
Figure 5
Relationships among leadership and networking in Charco Azul, La Babilla and Las Garzas.
Note: Is associated with: co-occurrence of two variables; is a mediator: one variable exerts an effect on another; influences: one variable enhances the other.
Figure 6
Relationships among excluded socioeconomic groups in Charco Azul, Pacheco and Hormiguero complex.
Note: Is associated with: co-occurrence of two variables; is a mediator: one variable exerts an effect on another; influences: one variable enhances the other; is a cause of: one variable is the origin of the other.