Introduction
The environmental challenges facing marine and coastal ecosystems demand a new generation of ocean stewards, capable of making sustainable decisions and spearheading conservation efforts (O’Brien et al., 2023). In Zanzibar, Tanzania, where marine ecosystems provide roughly 30% of the island’s GDP making it central to local livelihoods, the need for Marine Science Education (MSE) is particularly urgent (Lange & Jiddawi, 2009). Contemporary scholars also seek to change the current marine educational approaches alongside our understanding of sustainability teachings. Societal actors and scientists have therefore orchestrated a bottom-up movement which has resulted in the proclamation of a Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 by the United Nations General Assembly (Visbeck, 2018). Ryabinin et al. (2019) indicate that the Decade could mobilise the ocean community among UN member states towards sustainable development, serving as a conduit for research in oceanography and technological development. This will be a critical contribution by the ocean community to the effective implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14 “Life Below Water,” but also for SDGs like SDG 1 “No Poverty” and SDG 4 “Quality of Education.” Ryabinin et al. (2019) clarifies that the attainment of other SDGs is imperative for global ocean sustainability, presenting a stage for the combination of marine conservation and education (Apollo & Mbah, 2021) as a strategy for ocean sustainability. In the East-African context (Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda), climate agreements from the UN have increased the attention of governmental institutions to curb the negative impacts of climate change through different strategies. However, these institutions generally bypass the role of education in equipping people with skills to deal with uncertain environmental futures (Apollo & Mbah, 2021).
Given the urgency of the situation, ocean literacy (OL) has emerged as a critical component of marine education (McKinley et al., 2023). Understanding the ocean is essential in changing the course of global environmental challenges (O’Brien et al., 2023), making marine education vital in promoting awareness and knowledge about the ocean’s importance for life on Earth (O’Brien et al., 2023; Freitas et al., 2022; Freitas et al., 2025). Yet, studies reveal significant variation in the implementation of marine education programmes worldwide (O’Brien et al., 2023; Gough, 2017), indicating that citizens generally demonstrate limited understanding of marine environmental issues and protection (Fauville et al., 2019). Coastal and marine topics are often hard to locate in formal curricula or treated narrowly as geological mapping exercises rather than integrated OL content. Since schools serve as primary spaces where future decision-makers acquire skills and knowledge to act for a sustainable and resilient oceans (O’Brien et al., 2023; Freitas et al., 2022), greater inclusion of marine education within formal curricula is necessary to achieve both ocean sustainability and the UN SDGs (Apollo & Mbah, 2021; Reid, 2019; Visbeck, 2018).
The OL framework provides a potential response to these shortcomings (McKinley et al., 2023). Gough (2017) identifies OL as a core foundation for embedding fundamental scientific principles for all learners, while Freitas et al. (2022) argue that the OL movement represents a starting point for addressing the lack of marine-related knowledge and awareness. Teachers are key stakeholders in this process, yet they face persistent challenges such as limited environmental awareness and knowledge (Freitas et al., 2022), overloaded curricula, limited availability of educational resources (Freitas et al., 2025), fragmented curricula (Barracosa et al., 2019), lack of scientific support, and discomfort in teaching marine topics (O’Brien et al., 2023). Freitas et al. (2025), however, demonstrate that professional development programmes can empower and build teacher confidence to incorporate interdisciplinary approaches to OL. Importantly, OL does not necessarily require new learning areas; rather, it demands a rethinking of how existing science concepts are communicated (Freitas et al., 2025; Barracosa et al., 2019), through interdisciplinary approaches that may benefit from collaboration with informal education providers. Hence, Learner-Centred Pedagogy (LCP) must be adopted when building teacher capacities, while keeping in mind enablers and constraints at the individual, classroom, school, policy, curriculum design, recruitment and development, and wider societal levels (Sakata et al., 2022).
The role of informal education providers is particularly significant. Informal programmes provide unique, immersive experiences often unavailable in formal settings (O’Brien et al., 2023). Many operate in proximity to the coast, facilitating place-based learning but also raising challenges for inland schools with limited access (Barracosa et al., 2019). While countries like Portugal have benefitted from maritime traditions that embed ocean-related activities in education, this is not the case everywhere. For regions without such traditions, including inland areas, creative and engaging solutions are required.
These challenges are mirrored in the broader East-African educational context, where systemic barriers compound the difficulties of implementing MSE and OL. Education in East-Africa has expanded dramatically over the past 50 years (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021), with primary school completion rates rising significantly. Nevertheless, learning outcomes remain low. Many children do not complete primary education, and teachers often lack both pedagogical and subject-specific knowledge (Bold et al., 2017). This gap is especially concerning for low- and middle-income countries that are vulnerable to the impact of climate change, even though the majority of responsibility for this burden lies with high-income countries. Hence, it is important to educate people on climate change to prepare populations at all levels of the community, as they will need to make important policy decisions in the coming years (Apollo & Mbah, 2021). However, climate change topics are largely excluded from national exams, reducing their relevance for teachers and learners, and misconceptions about climate science persist (Apollo & Mbah, 2021). These barriers are especially significant given that interdisciplinary approaches are central to the integration of OL (Freitas et al., 2025; Barracosa et al., 2019).
Despite these barriers, numerous opportunities exist. Teacher training, coaching, mother tongue instruction, scripted lessons, and provision of resources have demonstrated potential to improve the quality of education (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021). However, scripted lessons alone may not foster the higher-order thinking skills essential for environmental literacy (Bold et al., 2017). Importantly, teachers across the East-African region show support for the integration of climate-related topics despite limited resources (Apollo & Mbah, 2021), underscoring the importance of training educators in climate and ocean literacy (Freitas et al., 2025; O’Brien et al., 2023). Collaboration with informal educators and local organisations further represents an opportunity to spread positive climate and marine education messages and promote behavioural change and action among local communities (Apollo & Mbah, 2021).
Scholars consistently highlight the importance of marine education and OL in achieving ocean sustainability and climate resilience (O’Brien et al., 2023; Freitas et al., 2022; Freitas et al., 2025). Yet, while implementation frameworks and debates are well-developed in high-income countries (Freitas et al., 2025; Fauville et al., 2019; Barracosa et al., 2019), research remains limited in low- to middle-income countries. The East-African context presents both overlapping and unique barriers, such as overcrowded curricula, limited teacher training, and systemic educational challenges (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021; Apollo & Mbah, 2021), suggesting a critical gap in understanding how MSE and OL can be effectively integrated into curricula. More research is necessary to investigate the existing barriers in Zanzibar where marine ecosystems play a vital role in livelihoods and national development.
This article explores strategies for the effective implementation of MSE in Matemwe, Zanzibar. It examines the relationship between education in Matemwe and MSE, mediated by curriculum development, capacity-building for teachers, and increasing informal educator participation. By conducting a qualitative study in both formal and informal educational contexts, the research seeks to provide an understanding of the ideas, perspectives, and opinions of informal and formal educators of MSE on the challenges and opportunities they faced in delivering MSE or related subjects in primary school curricula in Matemwe, Zanzibar, with the expected outcome being the advancement of the SDGs, the fostering of ocean sustainability, and the cultivation of future environmental stewards.
Building on the literature reviewed, a conceptual framework (Figure 1) was developed to synthesise the key structural, pedagogical, and contextual factors shaping MSE implementation in the East-African context. In this study, the framework functions as an analytical lens guiding data collection and thematic analysis, and provides a structure for organising the presentation of findings on challenges and opportunities for MSE delivery.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for MSE implementation in the East-African context.
The framework illustrates key interactions shaping Marine Science Education (MSE) implementation in the East-African context, linking teacher capacity, informal educator involvement, and curriculum-level factors. Interdisciplinarity and professional development support Learner-Centred Pedagogy (LCP) and MSE, with arrows indicating system relationships and orange bubbles representing literature-identified challenges and opportunities.
Methodology
Challenges and opportunities faced by formal and informal educators in implementing MSE in Matemwe, Zanzibar, were examined using a qualitative methodology. Specifically, it used an exploratory approach using mixed methods that would be discussed in succeeding sections to gain a deeper insight into the contextual factors, perceptions, and experiences affecting its delivery.
Matemwe is a rural area located on the island of Unguja, Zanzibar, with an estimated population of approximately 2,833 and a total area of 16.75 square kilometres (National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania, 2022). It is situated in the northern part of the island, in close proximity to both the western and eastern coastlines, as can be seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Map of Unguja, Zanzibar: Matemwe.
Source: National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (2022).
Sampling methods
Participants were selected through purposive sampling based on their (1) involvement as formal educators, such as primary school teachers and principals, (2) engagement as informal educators, including eco-stewards from local non-government organisations (NGO) and community organisations, and (3) direct participation in the MSE-project of Under The Wave (UTW), which has been an ongoing community-focused project since 2022, led by marine biologists from UTW. The variety of participants aimed to broaden the insights into how climate and marine science education are integrated into the curriculum.
The study participants can be seen in Table 1. It presents the roles and job titles of formal and informal educators involved in MSE who participated in the study. This includes primary and secondary school teachers from public schools, Tanzanian marine biologists, and Zanzibari eco-stewards from Mnemba Island.
Table 1
Roles and job titles of interview participants.
| PARTICIPANT | ROLE AND JOB TITLE OF THE INTERVIEW PARTICIPANT |
|---|---|
| P1 | Eco-steward and community officer Mnemba NGO |
| P2 | Eco-steward Mnemba NGO |
| P3 | Eco-steward Mnemba NGO and contact person UTW |
| P4 | Headteacher Mlimani school |
| P5 | Marine biologist and informal educator Chumbe/UTW |
| P6 | Junior marine biologist UTW |
| P7 | Math and physics teacher Matemwe school |
| P8 | Principal Matemwe school |
| P9 | Headteacher primary Matemwe school |
| P10 | Primary teacher Mlimani school |
| P11 | Senior marine biologist UTW |
| P12 | Primary teacher Matemwe school |
Purposive sampling was also applied for document analysis, with materials drawn from the UTW organisational OneDrive. Selection was guided by four criteria: authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning (Morgan, 2022) to triangulate findings (Bowen, 2009). In addition, participant observation was conducted during an organised field trip to the Kigomani lagoon, sampled on the basis of having a diverse group of students and involvement of both formal and informal educators. The field trip was organised to teach primary school students what lives at the Kigomani lagoon, and to expose them to the marine ecosystems taught in theoretical classes. The participant observation was conducted in one of three field trips to Kigomani lagoon that provided a learning activity and a meal. Supervision was ensured by assigning one adult per five students. The researcher maintained awareness of his own positionality and cultural background throughout the process, giving ongoing attention to the values and assumptions that could influence the research (Graham et al., 2013).
Data collection
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document analysis, with a logbook to keep track of necessary changes. The initial plan of 8 to 10 interviews, 3 observations, and 10 to 12 documents was revised due to Ramadan, Eid Al Fitr, and unsuitable tides, which restricted access to schools and delayed planned activities. Consequently, interviews were expanded to 12, one descriptive participant observation was conducted in Kigomani lagoon, and eight organisational documents—lesson plans and feedback forms—were analysed. Interviews were audio-recorded. The interviews averaged 32 minutes and were conducted in person. Interactive dialogue was encouraged through 16 open-ended questions on the following themes: teaching methods, community, curriculum and resources, environmental stewardship, ocean sustainability, long-term impact, and interdisciplinarity. Translation support was provided by two Tanzanian marine biologists employed by UTW, who were fully briefed on the research objectives and the interview guide (Appendix A) to facilitate communication between English and Swahili, compensating for the researcher’s lack of language proficiency. The observation followed Spradley’s (1979) framework of descriptive participant observation, depicting activity, object, space, time, actor, and goal, guiding grand- and mini-tour questions that structured the fieldnotes (Appendix B).
Methods for data analysis
Data from semi-structured interviews, organisational documents, and fieldnotes from a participant observation (Spradley, 1979) were analysed using thematic analysis as conceptualised by Braun and Clarke (2021), which recognises multiple approaches but shares an interest in capturing patterns in the data. A primarily deductive approach, with the use of a codebook was adopted, allowing for the early development of themes informed by the conceptual framework (Figure 1). However, the analysis also incorporated inductively derived codes as new insights emerged.
Interview recordings, conducted with translation support where necessary, were transcribed, checked for accuracy, and coded in QDA Miner. Deductive coding was conducted in the first two cycles using themes from the conceptual framework, while later cycles introduced inductive codes refined through engagement with the data. Following Braun and Clarke (2006, 2019) and Stacey (2019), the researcher familiarised himself with the interview transcripts, organisational documents, and observation notes, reviewed and revised codes for coherence, distinguished between ‘established’ and ‘added’ themes, and refined the codebook (Appendix C) until the final set of themes presented in the findings section was reached.
Quality assurance
To ensure the rigour of the study, several measures were implemented concerning reliability and validity. Reliability was enhanced by standardising interview conditions. Participants received consistent information via a consent form (Appendix D) prior to the interviews, which were conducted within a clear time frame. To ensure analytical consistency, multiple cycles of inductive and deductive analysis were conducted using QDA Miner software, supplemented by peer consultation. A detailed logbook was maintained throughout data collection and analysis to track interview progress, obstacles, and the evolution of codes, providing a clear audit trail.
To strengthen validity, data triangulation was applied using data from semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and organisational documents. The participant observation was guided by a descriptive participant observation protocol (Appendix B) based on Spradley (1979) to reduce subjectivity. Furthermore, the interview guide was pilot-tested with informal educators to ensure content relevance and clarity, which led to restructuring based on feedback (Kallio et al., 2016). The research design and interview questions were reviewed by mentors to ensure alignment with the research focus. Participants were selected through purposeful sampling based on predetermined criteria, ensuring transparency. Finally, the research findings were reviewed by project mentors as a final check for accuracy.
Ethics and Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all interview participants via a consent form (Appendix D), which explained the research purpose and guaranteed voluntary participation. Although no interviewees requested anonymity, pseudonyms were used in the reporting of findings to safeguard privacy. All data (notes, transcripts) were deleted upon finalisation of the research, and access was restricted to the researcher and supervising mentors during the project.
For the participant observation involving children at the primary and secondary school, consent for observation and note-taking was secured through the school’s principal. Parental consent forms were distributed by the principal, and written permission was obtained. The research was guided by the principles of the International Charter for Ethical Research Involving Children (Graham et al., 2013), ensuring integrity, respect for students’ views and cultures, and equitable treatment. Student consent was obtained through oral confirmation.
Positionality statement
The author (he/him) is a white, cis-gender male from the Netherlands. He acknowledges the unearned privileges associated with his identity, citizenship, and academic access. His perspective is shaped by his cultural background and his formal education training in Global Project and Change Management, a bachelor programme grounded in frameworks like the UN SDGs. He recognises that this background inherently influences his interactions, thinking, and reporting. He is critically aware of the risk of reproducing a colonial dynamic where Western knowledge is privileged over “Other” knowledge (Hill et al., 2023). He views decolonising research as a continuous process of listening, unlearning, and rethinking (Hill et al., 2023), whose knowledge is valued, and for whom the research is intended. He is committed to contributing to more reflexive, culturally aware, and context-relevant research practices that have accurate ethical considerations, supporting both local empowerment and marine conservation outcomes.
Findings and Discussion
This section presents the research findings, structured around the study’s conceptual framework in Figure 1, the codebook (Appendix C), and their corresponding sub-themes. The themes discussed below have been purposefully selected for their direct relevance to answering the main research question and addressing the core management problem.
Opportunities for Enhancing MSE
The findings of the study suggest that the opportunities for enhancing MSE are mostly apparent through experiential learning, students as change agents, structured curricula, and teacher capacity building. Below, in Figure 3, the themes are outlined, being further differentiated by the attributed sub-themes. In the following, each theme is defined, explained, and analysed.
Figure 3
Opportunities for enhancing MSE.
Capacity building
Strengthening capacity building comprises statements made by interview participants on how collaboration and professional development could be elevated for MSE. When asked how they could better incorporate MSE in teaching, most participants referred to knowledge sharing, training, and more collaboration between initiatives. The emphasis from both informal and formal educators illustrates the importance and willingness to work towards capacity building.
For many participants, building a network between informal and formal educators should be emphasised more to make implementation effective in multiple schools. One eco-steward (P3) shared that collaboration is key to gaining new knowledge about marine conservation. Others highlighted their interconnectedness, noting that despite teaching different subjects, they work towards the same common goal of sustainability (P10). Furthermore, professional development and training in MSE were deemed most important. A headteacher (P9) stressed the need for training before handing materials to students:
First, to give us this subject, marine, the teacher needs to be trained, giving the idea of what part is needed to teach the pupils. Then materials are needed and how to teach with these materials. Maybe pictures, maybe a trip to see how marine conservation works.
This aligns with what educators find crucial for capacity building (Freitas et al., 2025). Strengthening capacity building through participation, sharing of knowledge and resources, and building a network correlates with the theory on increasing teacher capacity (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021), showing a clear opportunity for MSE delivery.
Designing structured curricula
This theme includes participants’ experiences with existing curricula and their opinions on how MSE could enter formal curricula. The data reveals two interrelated opportunities: teaching MSE as an interdisciplinary topic or as a stand-alone subject.
A clear need for a more structured approach was identified. Many informal educators mentioned the lack of a coherent curriculum, leading them to improvise lessons. One eco-steward (P2) clarified how structure would improve teaching, explaining that without a timetable or clear topic, preparedness and delivery are challenging. This highlights a desire for a defined curriculum to facilitate organised teaching.
Participants saw an opportunity by combining the specialised knowledge of informal educators with the structured environment of formal education, suggesting integration into existing subjects or creation as a stand-alone subject (Freitas et al., 2022; Barracosa et al., 2019). Overall, a preference for a stand-alone subject was expressed due to the wide variety of topics MSE encompasses. A senior marine biologist (P11) illustrated this, arguing that because MSE involves geography, chemistry, biology, and physics of the ocean, it warrants its own subject within the Zanzibar curriculum. This affinity for a stand-alone subject, while showing excitement, also reflects a caution towards the complexities of cross-curricular integration, confirming findings in related educational fields (Apollo & Mbah, 2021).
Finally, organisational documents show that structured, printed materials like booklets could provide a visual and reliable resource for students to revise and understand topics, addressing the overarching challenge of a lack of teaching resources (Under the Wave, 2024b).
Students as change agents
A central expected outcome of marine education and ocean literacy is the development of environmental stewardship, a goal substantiated by literature (Lange & Jiddawi, 2009; Freitas et al., 2022). This theme explores the strategies identified by participants to achieve this, positioning students as active change agents within their communities.
Participants emphasised the dependency of Zanzibar on the ocean, underscoring the need for students to become stewards to protect future livelihoods. This aligns with government initiatives like the funded Blue Economy, which aims to improve fisheries and aquaculture. A senior marine biologist (P11) connected these elements, suggesting that MSE programmes, combined with future job opportunities in the blue economy, could encourage students to pursue ocean conservation.
Evidence suggests this approach is effective. A principal (P8) shared a clear account of behavioural change, observing that students who complete the MSE programme become agents of conservation in their homes and communities, convincing others not to harm turtles or pollute the ocean. This impact even extends to parents during school ceremonies, who gain an understanding of the importance of these studies. Nevertheless, it remains difficult for formal educators to assess the full impact on all students, due to the large number of students to observe in one classroom.
To enlarge this impact, a teacher (P7) proposed creating more “ambassadors” of MSE each year, which would lead to greater knowledge sharing with the community. This strategy of amplifying student voice is already being implemented; lesson plan reflections show students are prompted to articulate what actions they and their community need to take to achieve desired changes (Pfäffli, 2024).
These findings suggest that enhancing the MSE curriculum with a focus on students as change agents can gain community support and potentially contribute to broader sustainability goals like the UN SDGs (Apollo & Mbah, 2021; Reid, 2019; Visbeck, 2018).
Experiential learning
This theme presents opportunities for constructing MSE lessons to maximise student learning and engagement, focusing on place-based learning, the value of field trips, and student engagement strategies.
Participants highlighted the inherent advantage of the coastal location for teaching marine topics, though accessibility varies between schools (Barracosa et al., 2019). A senior marine biologist (P5) emphasised the need for practical lessons, noting that “to narrow down marine science into a very, very, very [sic] simple way so that the primary kids can understand is quite difficult.” The primary school students are, however, eager to learn more about their coastal environment and the ocean. This provides a stage for field trips that create value by creating long-term memories of the trip to nature, as well as keeping students mentally fit by going out in nature.
Field trips were identified as crucial for creating lifelong memories and in shaping the environmental attitudes of children. An eco-steward (P1) explained that seeing the coral reef firsthand, rather than just hearing about it in class, helps students understand why it is important to protect this valuable resource and how to better respect and protect the ocean. This was evidenced during participant observation at the Kigomani lagoon field trip, where students showed clear excitement during a ‘treasure hunt’ activity, returning to school with smiles while showing their identified organisms (Observation field notes, April 14, 2025).
Closely related is the role of active student engagement. Organisational documents recommend using reward systems to cultivate a competitive spirit and maintain interest (Under the Wave, 2024a). Other initiatives include using visuals, taking students outside the classroom, and establishing environmental clubs for games and conservation activities. The success of these engaging methods over didactic teaching was confirmed by a senior marine biologist (P11), who found that despite the language barrier, primary students’ eagerness to learn makes interactive lessons particularly successful.
These findings align with the conceptual framework, indicating that informal educator involvement—which often brings a more flexible, hands-on approach—stimulates engagement by increasing access to materials and freedom in lesson design (O’Brien et al., 2023).
Key Challenges for Formal and Informal Educators in Delivering MSE
The findings indicate that challenges to MSE delivery are dominated by systemic and structural constraints, followed by social barriers, impacted student learning, and insufficient educator capacities. These themes and their sub-themes are outlined in Figure 4. Each theme is defined and analysed in the following sections.
Figure 4
Challenges in delivering MSE.
Insufficient educator capacities
This theme explores challenges related to teacher capacity for MSE, as outlined in the conceptual framework (Freitas et al., 2022; Bold et al., 2017; Apollo & Mbah, 2021). The findings reveal two key sub-themes: teacher knowledge gaps and conflicting goals and aims between educators.
A significant challenge is the lack of foundational marine science knowledge among educators. A senior marine biologist (P5) reported that while Zanzibar has been blessed with abundant coastal and marine resources, it fails to share the knowledge with the local population on how to utilise these resources sustainably. The primary school children’s understanding of marine life and its resources is little to non-existent, as MSE has never been formally taught in school. While informal educators show initiative by independently preparing materials from personal knowledge and the internet (P2), the lack of a formal educational background in marine science raises concerns about the reliability of the information being transferred.
Beyond knowledge gaps, conflicting goals and methodologies can hinder collaboration. A senior marine biologist (P11) expressed frustration with a partner NGO, stating that differing curricula and programme frequencies, such as year-long programmes versus one-off sessions, led to incompatibility and the termination of the collaboration, indicating that alignment in expectations and intrinsic motivation is crucial.
Furthermore, capacity issues have been observed from both sides. A principal (P8) suggested that while UTW’s teachers are good, they need more staff with stronger pedagogical methodologies to expand their efforts effectively. At the same time, formal educators themselves acknowledge a need for more professional development, particularly in delivering content in English (P4). These findings highlight multifaceted capacity gaps that must be addressed for successful MSE implementation.
Systemic and structural constraints
Systemic and structural constraints, relating to the curriculum level of the conceptual framework (Freitas et al., 2022; Freitas et al., 2025; O’Brien et al., 2023; Gough, 2017) were the most frequently cited challenges. These can be grouped into three clusters: fragmented curriculum and government alignment; lack of funding and materials; and overcrowded classrooms with time constraints. Participants emphasised that curriculum and resource availability are extremely relevant to explore to identify challenges in delivering MSE.
The first cluster involves a misalignment between the standardised national curriculum and local contexts. While educators appreciate parts of the new curriculum, a principal (P8) noted that some content does not correspond to their (rural) living environment, despite repeated advice to the government. A headteacher (P9) reinforced that the curriculum’s implementation is hampered by a lack of basic infrastructure, stating, “You need materials like projectors, computers, but the school doesn’t even have electricity.”
This directly leads to the second cluster: a critical lack of funding, materials, and equipment. A headteacher (P4) confirmed the absence of resources like computers and scientific equipment. A colleague (P10) added that while the government curriculum advocates for activities like field trips, the funds are unavailable. Informal educators face identical issues, reporting a lack of visual aids and fluid guidelines for teaching environmental topics.
The third cluster, overcrowded classrooms and time constraints (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021; Apollo & Mbah, 2021), severely impacts educational quality. A principal (P8) explained that teacher competency appears low because they cannot effectively manage classes of 70 students, a challenge compounded by a lack of foundational education in elementary schooling. This overcrowding, compared to the recommended maximum of 30 students, leads to inefficient schedules. Furthermore, the syllabus overestimates available time; a headteacher (P4) illustrated that periods are simply not enough to complete lessons. This directly affects MSE delivery, as informal educators often find their allocated teaching time taken over by formal educators in order to cover the government syllabus (P1).
Organisational documents and participant observation notes confirm that time runs tight during MSE lessons, with sessions starting late or going over time (Under the Wave, 2024a; Observation field notes, April 14, 2025). These macro-level challenges involving materials, funding, time, number of students and teachers, government relations, and curriculum coherence (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021; Apollo & Mbah, 2021), highlight the difficulty of directly translating informal MSE programmes into the formal school setting. This must also occupy a central place in any future curriculum development.
Socio-cultural barriers
Social barriers, rooted in community conceptions and beliefs, present a significant challenge to MSE. Participants highlighted how cultural factors, including religious norms, beliefs tied to marine jobs, and generational perspectives, constrain the implementation and expansion of MSE.
A primary challenge involves cultural norms that limit participation. A primary teacher (P10) explained how beliefs about modesty affect girls’ engagement, stating: “The culture of people is putting on a lot of layers, not being exposed in terms of women. But one of the field trips involves underwater activities. So, it’s tricky for girls … they are not comfortable.” This barrier prevents connection to the ocean and eliminates the opportunity to gain experience in managing relationships with the ocean (Visbeck, 2018).
Beyond access, a deeper challenge lies in reconciling school-based knowledge with community practices. An eco-steward (P1) emphasised that marine protection taught in school is ineffective without community involvement, as a lack of broader agreement can lead to continued environmental damage. This disconnect is felt by students attempting to act as change agents. A teacher (P12) shared that when children try to correct their parents’ long-standing practices, they are met with resistance and the question, “who do you think you are?”
These dynamics create a retaliatory effect on students’ understanding and agency. This is compounded by a form of environmental generational amnesia (Walshe et al., 2024), where community members like fishers and tour guides perceive the current degraded state of coral reefs and fisheries as the normal baseline, undermining the urgency for conservation efforts promoted by MSE, as illustrated by the principal (P8).
Impacted student learning
This theme addresses limitations in MSE delivery stemming directly from student-level challenges, which are often a consequence of broader systemic issues. The data reveals two interconnected sub-themes: language barrier and student knowledge gaps.
A primary challenge is the language of instruction. Educators are required to use English for older primary students, yet many children have no prior exposure to it. Unfortunately, primary school children often do not know how to speak English, which presents a substantial barrier for content delivery. An eco-steward (P3) explained the practical difficulty: “The medium for [sic] instruction which I use when I teach primary, I use Swahili language… this is a challenge. Because you take the English notes and have to translate them… because they don’t know the English language.” This barrier also affects volunteer support, as noted in organisational documents where volunteers struggled to explain concepts due to the language gap (Under the Wave, 2024a).
Beyond language, students face significant knowledge gaps in foundational skills. A principal (P8) hypothesised that this stems from a lack of early childhood education and large class sizes, resulting in students arriving in secondary school as “unskilled” or “inexperienced.” This directly impacts MSE, as a marine biologist (P5) reported that students’ varying capacities and difficulties with reading and writing make it challenging to teach increasingly complex marine biology topics.
These findings confirm that while the language barrier is a relevant challenge (Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021), the data suggest an interrelation between the identified challenges, where impacted student learning is not solely an internal issue. It is deeply interrelated with and often originates from systemic constraints like overcrowded classrooms and a fragmented curriculum, suggesting that solutions must address these root causes to improve conditions for delivering MSE.
Conclusions
This study examined opportunities for enhancing MSE and the challenges to its delivery in primary schools in Matemwe, Zanzibar, drawing on interviews, participant observation, and document analysis.
The findings highlight eight themes divided into enabling and constraining factors, with particular emphasis on opportunities in capacity building, structured curricula, experiential learning, and the role of students as change agents. Educators emphasised (marine) knowledge sharing, professional development, and collaborative relationships between formal and informal educators (Freitas et al., 2025; Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021). Participants underscored the need for coherent, resource-supported curricula, and recognised the effectiveness of field trips and place-based learning in fostering student engagement with the ocean (Barracosa et al., 2019; O’Brien et al., 2023). Lastly, the potential of students as change agents was recognised by both types of educators. While evidence of behavioural change was difficult to observe in large classrooms, reports suggested that students influence their families and communities to improve their behaviour towards the ocean (Lange & Jiddawi, 2009; Freitas et al., 2022), contributing to environmental stewardship and potentially aligning with broader initiatives such as the Blue Economy and the UN SDGs. This suggests that students’ environmental stewardship have an impact on community awareness and potentially long-term transformation (Apollo & Mbah, 2021; Visbeck, 2018; Reid, 2019).
At the same time, systemic and structural barriers also pose critical challenges to the initiative. Misalignment of the national curriculum with rural realities, insufficient infrastructure, funding, and teaching materials, and overcrowded classrooms constrain the effective delivery of MSE (Freitas et al., 2022; Gough, 2017; Evans & Mendez Acosta, 2021; Apollo & Mbah, 2021). Social and cultural norms further restricted participation, particularly for girls in water-based activities, and community perceptions sometimes clashed with messages from informal educators, suggesting elements of environmental generational amnesia (Walshe et al., 2024). The theme of insufficient educator capacities complicated the delivery of MSE. While formal educators showed knowledge gaps in MSE-content, informal educators showed a lack of pedagogical training. These shortcomings between NGOs and primary and secondary schools are what led to challenges in collaboration (Bold et al., 2017; Apollo & Mbah, 2021). These constraints ultimately impacted student learning. Language barriers, large class sizes, foundational education gaps severely limited student engagement with complex MSE topics. Additionally, reliance on self-developed teaching materials raises concern over the quality of knowledge transfer.
Overall, the study demonstrates that MSE delivery in Matemwe holds strong potential, supported by educator enthusiasm, student engagement, and community relevance. Realising this potential, however, requires addressing macro-level challenges of curriculum development, infrastructure, and funding alongside micro-level issues of teacher training, community engagement, and classroom practices. In particular, gender-based participation barriers reveal a knowledge gap that calls for further research, with scope for community-driven strategies to support girls’ connection to the ocean, given that young women ask for such support. Therefore, stakeholders must be consulted in relation to girls’ and women’s participation in ocean-related activities to understand how these barriers can be addressed in order to achieve full participation across all genders. Future MSE initiatives should be co-designed with formal and informal educators, tailored to local realities, and offer alternative participation pathways outside of the classroom, thereby enabling MSE to become an integral and effective part of primary education that pushes for ocean literacy and sustainability. Finally, NGOs and CSOs must be committed to the implementation of the MSE course. Utilizing community facilitators to informally educate communities on the basics of marine science supports children in taking actions they wish to pursue as an outcome of MSE. Ultimately, this would strengthen collaboration between informal and formal education.
Contribution to the Academic Field and Future Research
This study contributes to the academic field by providing contextualised insights into the delivery of MSE in Zanzibar’s primary schools, addressing the broader national need for increased environmental awareness and sustainable resource management. By examining micro- and macro-level factors that influence the implementation of MSE, the research highlights how teacher capacity, informal educator involvement, curriculum design, interdisciplinarity, and professional development can either constrain or enhance educational delivery. These findings enrich existing literature by demonstrating the interconnectedness of these concepts in a context where marine conservation is both a local necessity and a global priority. Moreover, the study advances understanding of how educator behaviours, perceptions, and challenges shape community-level engagement with marine issues, offering implications for the design of curricula and professional development initiatives in formal and informal educational settings.
The outcomes of this research can be translated into practice by supporting government institutions, NGOs, and other educational initiatives in identifying barriers and opportunities for effective MSE delivery. They offer a foundation for refining lesson plans, enhancing student engagement, and strengthening educator development. The conceptual framing also provides a reference point for scholars and practitioners exploring the integration of environmental and marine education in diverse contexts, whether in institutions already engaging with ocean stewardship or those seeking to expand their involvement.
Future research should build upon these findings by incorporating the perspectives of primary school students, whose voices were absent in this study yet crucial for understanding the learner experience of MSE. Expanding the data collection through larger samples, comparative studies across regions, and the use of focus groups would also enable deeper insights into how educational communities collectively navigate the challenges of marine education. Finally, further investigation into cultural context, educational practices, and community perceptions could strengthen the applicability of MSE frameworks in supporting both local and global marine conservation efforts.
Limitations
This study faced several limitations that influenced data collection and analysis. Planned participant observations were reduced due to unforeseen scheduling conflicts during Ramadan and changes in MSE class timetables, reflecting a lack of cultural foresight in the research design. Challenges in coordinating with both formal and informal educators—exacerbated by second-hand communication through UTW—further restricted access to participants and delayed interviews. The reliance on translators introduced risks of misinterpretation, as some questions were lost in translation, and the presence of multiple interviewees in the same session may have influenced responses. Technical barriers, such as recurring power outages, also constrained the research process. Additionally, the absence of student perspectives limited the scope of findings, as their voices could have provided valuable contrast to educator accounts. Overall, these limitations underscore the importance of early cultural engagement, improved logistical planning, and broader inclusion of perspectives in future research.
Data Accessibility Statement
Due to ethical considerations and the qualitative nature of the data, interview transcripts and observation notes are not publicly available. Anonymised excerpts may be made available from the author upon reasonable request.
Additional File
The additional file for this article can be found as follows:
Acknowledgements
The completion of this article would have been impossible without the help of several people, to which I would like to express my sincere gratitude. Foremost, I would like to thank my in-company mentor, Casper Morch, and project coordinator, Sara Agostini. Their valuable advice and suggestions on both the MSE-project and the research study have carried me through challenging stages of managing the project elements, and academic research. I would also like to thank my internship counsellor, Deanne Boisvert, for the guidance, timely responses, and positive and valuable feedback throughout the internship.
Furthermore, my sincere gratitude goes to the local staff of Under the Wave, who have supported me continuously in translating interviews, documents, and scheduling appointments with persons of interest to the education project.
Finally, I would like to thank the interview participants of this study for taking the time to share your experiences, visions, ideas, and knowledge highly contributed to the findings of this study.
Competing Interests
The author has no competing interests to declare.