References
- World Health Organization. Global report on hypertension: the race against a silent killer. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 2023 [cited 2024 Jan 15]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240081062 . - World Bank. World Bank Country and Lending Groups [cited 2025 January 15 ]. Available from:
https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups . - World Health Organization. Hypertension Key Facts, 2023 [cited 2025 Jun 6]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension . - Munshi H, Gajbhiye R. Addressing disparities and challenges in global health from an LMIC perspective. The Lancet. 2023;402(10396):102–103. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(23)01171-6
- Geldsetzer P, Manne-Goehler J, Marcus M-E, Ebert C, Zhumadilov Z, Wesseh CS, et al. The state of hypertension care in 44 low-income and middle-income countries: A cross-sectional study of nationally representative individual-level data from 1•1 million adults. The Lancet. 2019;394(10199):652–662. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30955-9
- Adebayo A, Akinyemi OO. “What Are You Really Doing in This Country?”: Emigration intentions of Nigerian doctors and their policy implications for human resource for health management. Journal of International Migration & Integration. 2022;23(3):1377–1396. DOI: 10.1007/s12134-021-00898-y
- World Health Organization. Non communicable diseases and their risk factors. Third UN high-level meeting on NCDS; 2018 [cited 2024 Jun 12]. Available from:
http://www.who.int/ncds/governance/third-un-meeting/about/en/ . - Kostova D, Spencer G, Moran AE, Cobb LK, Husain MJ, Datta BK, et al. The cost-effectiveness of hypertension management in low-income and middle-income countries: A review. BMJ Global Health. 2020;5(9):
e002213 . DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002213 - Bertram M, Banatvala N, Kulikov A, Belausteguigoitia I, Sandoval R, Hennis A, et al. Using economic evidence to support policy decisions to fund interventions for non-communicable diseases. BMJ. 2019;365:
l1648 . DOI: 10.1136/bmj.l1648 - Frieden TR, Varghese CV, Kishore SP, Campbell NRC, Moran AE, Padwal R, et al. Scaling up effective treatment of hypertension-A pathfinder for universal health coverage. Journal of Clinical Hypertension (Greenwich). 2019;21(10):1442–1449. DOI: 10.1111/jch.13655
- Beshah SA, Husain MJ, Dessie GA, Worku A, Negeri MG, Banigbe B, et al. Cost analysis of the WHO-HEARTS program for hypertension control and CVD prevention in primary health facilities in Ethiopia. Public Health in Practice (Oxford). 2023;6:
100423 . DOI: 10.1016/j.puhip.2023.100423 - Abdalla M, Bolen SD, Brettler J, Egan BM, Ferdinand KC, Ford CD, et al. American Heart Association and American Medical Association. Implementation strategies to improve blood pressure control in the United States: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association and American Medical Association. Hypertension. 2023;80(10):e143–e157. DOI: 10.1161/HYP.0000000000000232
- Gyamfi J, Iwelunmor J, Patel S, Irazola V, Aifah A, Rakhra A, et al. Implementation outcomes and strategies for delivering evidence-based hypertension interventions in lower-middle-income countries: Evidence from a multi-country consortium for hypertension control. PLoS One. 2023;18(5):
e0286204 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286204 - Powell BJ, McMillen JC, Proctor EK, Carpenter CR, Griffey RT, Bunger AC, et al. A compilation of strategies for implementing clinical innovations in health and mental health. Medical Care Research and Review. 2012;69(2):123–157. DOI: 10.1177/1077558711430690
- Joshi R, Alim M, Kengne AP, Jan S, Maulik PK, Peiris D, et al. Task shifting for non-communicable disease management in low and middle income countries – A systematic review. PLoS One. 2014;9(8):
e103754 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103754 - Anand TN, Joseph LM, Geetha AV, Prabhakaran D, Jeemon P. Task sharing with non-physician health-care workers for management of blood pressure in low-income and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Global Health. 2019;7(6):e761–e771. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30077-4
- Gajewski J, Cheelo M, Bijlmakers L, Kachimba J, Pittalis C, Brugha R. The contribution of non-physician clinicians to the provision of surgery in rural Zambia—a randomised controlled trial. Human Resources for Health. 2019;17(1):
60 . DOI: 10.1186/s12960-019-0398-9 - Abrokwa SK, Ruby LC, Heuvelings CC, Bélard S. Task shifting for point of care ultrasound in primary healthcare in low- and middle-income countries-a systematic review. eClinicalMedicine. 2022;45:
101333 . DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101333 - CDC. Sharing and Shifting Task to maiantain essential healthcare during Covid-19 in Low resource non-US settings. Control CfD.
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/global-covid-19/task-sharing.html: Accessed 7th March, 2023; 2022. - Lekoubou A, Awah P, Fezeu L, Sobngwi E, Kengne AP. Hypertension, diabetes mellitus and task shifting in their management in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2010;7(2):353–363. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7020353
- World Health Organization PU. Task shifting : Rational redistribution of tasks among health workforce teams : Global recommendations and guidelines. World Health Organization.
https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/438212007 . - Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. PLoS Medicine. 2021;18(3):
e1003583 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003583 - Drummond ME, Sculpher MJ, Claxton K, Stoddart GL, Torrance TG. Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes. New York: Oxford University Press; 2015.
- Proctor EK, Landsverk J, Aarons G, Chambers D, Glisson C, Mittman B. Implementation research in mental health services: An emerging science with conceptual, methodological, and training challenges. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research. 2009;36(1):24–34. DOI: 10.1007/s10488-008-0197-4
- Glasgow RE, Vogt T, Boles SM. Evaluating the public health impact of health promotion interventions: The RE-AIM framework. American Journal of Public Health. 1999;89(9):1322–1327. DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1322
- Proctor E, Silmere H, Raghavan R, Hovmand P, Aarons G, Bunger A, et al. Outcomes for implementation research: Conceptual distinctions, measurement challenges, and research agenda. Administration and Policy in Mental Health. 2011;38(2):65–76. DOI: 10.1007/s10488-010-0319-7
- Hutubessy R, Chisholm D, Edejer TT. Generalized cost-effectiveness analysis for national-level priority-setting in the health sector. Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation. 2003;1(1):
8 . DOI: 10.1186/1478-7547-1-8 - Neumann PJ, Thorat T, Zhong Y, Anderson J, Farquhar M, Salem M, et al. A systematic review of cost-effectiveness studies reporting cost-per-DALY averted. PLoS One. 2016;11(12):
e0168512 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168512 - Global-rates.com. Inflation Calculator Online: Global-rates.com; 2009–2025. Available from:
https://www.global-rates.com/en/calculations/inflation-calculator/ . - World Bank Group. PPP conversion factor, GDP (LCU per international $) – Indonesia Online: World Bank Group; 2025. Available from:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/PA.NUS.PPP?locations=ID . - GDP per Capita. Worldometer.
https://www.worldometers.info › gdp › gdp-per-capita2024. - Min C, Xue M, Haotian F, Jialian L, Lingli Z. An overview of the characteristics and quality assessment criteria in systematic review of pharmacoeconomics. PLoS One. 2021;16(2):
e0246080 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246080 - Edmunds K, Ling R, Shakeshaft A, Doran C, Searles A. Systematic review of economic evaluations of interventions for high risk young people. BMC Health Services Research. 2018;18(1):
660 . DOI: 10.1186/s12913-018-3450-x - Sterne JA, Hernan MA, Reeves BC, Savovic J, Berkman ND, Viswanathan M, et al. ROBINS-I: A tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ. 2016;355:
i4919 . DOI: 10.1136/bmj.i4919 - Garcia-Pena C, Thorogood M, Wonderling D, Reyes-Frausto S. Economic analysis of a pragmatic randomised trial of home visits by a nurse to elderly people with hypertension in Mexico. Salud publica de Mexico. 2002;44(1):14–20. DOI: 10.1590/S0036-36342002000100002
- Gaziano TA, Bertram M, Tollman SM, Hofman KJ. Hypertension education and adherence in South Africa: A cost-effectiveness analysis of community health workers. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:
240 . DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-240 - Riwu M, Yubiliana G, Halimah E, Diantini A. Cost-effectiveness analysis of pharmacist counselling in therapeutic success and quality of life of hypertensive patients. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2019;12(12):5845–5847. DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2019.01013.8
- Yusransyah, Halimah E, Suwantika A. Optimal scenario of antihypertension’s cost-effectiveness in Prolanis hypertension patients: A case study of Pandeglang District, Indonesia. Pharmacy Education. 2022;22(2):85–91. DOI: 10.46542/pe.2022.222.8591
- Finkelstein EA, Krishnan A, Naheed A, Jehan I, de Silva HA, Gandhi M, et al. COBRA-BPS study group. Budget impact and cost-effectiveness analyses of the COBRA-BPS multicomponent hypertension management programme in rural communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The Lancet Global Health. 2021;9(5):e660–e667. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00033-4
- Pozo-Martin F, Akazili J, Der R, Laar A, Adler AJ, Lamptey P, et al. Cost-effectiveness of a Community-based Hypertension Improvement Project (ComHIP) in Ghana: Results from a modelling study. BMJ Open. 2021;11(9):
e039594 . DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039594 - Stephens JH, Addepalli A, Chaudhuri S, Niyonzima A, Musominali S, Uwamungu JC, et al. Chronic Disease in the Community (CDCom) Program: Hypertension and non communicable disease care by village health workers in rural Uganda. PLoS ONE. 2021;16(2):
e0247464 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247464 - Metadata Glossary World Bank Databank. Group WB.
https://databank.worldbank.org<NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.KD2024 . - Hayek MA, Giannouchos T, Lawley M, Kum HC. Economic evaluation of blood pressure monitoring techniques in patients with hypertension: A systematic review. JAMA Network Open. 2023;6(11):
e2344372 . DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.44372 - Al-Aqeel S, Alsugair J, Alghamdi R. Economic evaluation of interventions to improve medication adherence among patients with chronic diseases: An overview of systematic reviews. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research. 2023;23(2):153–179. DOI: 10.1080/14737167.2023.2161516
- Ahumada-Canale A, Quirland C, Martinez-Mardones FJ, Plaza-Plaza JC, Benrimoj S, Garcia-Cardenas V. Economic evaluations of pharmacist-led medication review in outpatients with hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and dyslipidaemia: A systematic review. European Journal of Health Economics. 2019;20:1103–1116. DOI: 10.1007/s10198-019-01080-z
- Davari M, Sorato MM, Kebriaeezadeh A, Sarrafzadegan N. Cost-effectiveness of hypertension therapy based on 2020 International Society of Hypertension guidelines in Ethiopia from a societal perspective. PLoS One. 2022;17(8):
e0273439 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273439 - Nugent R, Brower E, Cravioto A, Koehlmoos T. A cost-benefit analysis of a National Hypertension Treatment Program in Bangladesh. Preventive Medicine. 2017;105S:S56–S61. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.08.014
- Zhou YF, Chen S, Chen JX, Chen S, Wang G, Pan XF, Wu S, Pan A. Cost-effectiveness of a workplace-based hypertension management program in real-world practice in the Kailuan study. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2024;13(8):
e031578 . DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.123.031578 - Baldridge AS, Aluka-Omitiran K, Orji IA, Shedul GL, Ojo TM, Eze H, et al. Hypertension Treatment in Nigeria (HTN) Program: Rationale and design for a type 2 hybrid, effectiveness, and implementation interrupted time series trial. Implementation Science Communications. 2022;3(1):
84 . DOI: 10.1186/s43058-022-00328-9 - Chay J, Jafar TH, Su RJ, Shirore RM, Tan NC, Finkelstein EA. Cost-effectiveness of a multicomponent primary care intervention for hypertension. Journal of the American Heart Association. 2024;13(8):
e033631 . DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.123.033631 - Richman IB, Fairley M, Jørgensen ME, Schuler A, Owens DK, Goldhaber-Fiebert JD. Cost-effectiveness of intensive blood pressure management. JAMA Cardiology. 2016;1(8):872–879. DOI: 10.1001/jamacardio.2016.3517
- Wang ST, Lin TY, Chen TH, Chen SL, Fann JC. Cost-effectiveness analysis of personalized hypertension prevention. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2023;13(6):
1001 . DOI: 10.3390/jpm13061001 - Debela DB, Dhaba B, Shumi G, Abagero A, Gudina G, Ayana Y, et al. Effect of an educational intervention on lifestyle modification of patients with hypertension at Bishoftu General Hospital, Ethiopia, 2021. Preventing Chronic Disease. 2023;20:
E20 . DOI: 10.5888/pcd20.220235 - Ojji D, Aifah A, Iwelunmor J, Hade EM, Onakomaiya D, Colvin C, et al. Building capacity of community nurses to strengthen the management of uncomplicated hypertension in persons living with HIV in low- and middle-income countries. Global Heart. 2023;18(1):
38 . DOI: 10.5334/gh.1216 - Batte C, Mukisa J, Rykiel N, Mukunya D, Checkley W, Knauf F, et al. Acceptability of patient-centered hypertension education delivered by community health workers among people living with HIV/AIDS in rural Uganda. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):
1343 . DOI: 10.1186/s12889-021-11411-6 - Bera O, Mondal H, Bhattacharya S. Empowering communities: A review of community-based outreach programs in controlling hypertension in India. Cureus. 2023;15(12):
e50722 . DOI: 10.7759/cureus.50722 - Bone JN, Khowaja A, Vidler M, Payne BA, Bellad MB, Goudar SS, et al. Economic and cost-effectiveness analysis of the Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) trials in India, Pakistan and Mozambique. BMJ Global Health. 2021;6(5):
e004123 . DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004123 - Gamage DG, Riddell M, Joshi R, Thankappan KR, Chow CK, Oldenburg B, et al. Effectiveness of a scalable group-based education and monitoring program, delivered by health workers, to improve control of hypertension in rural India: A cluster randomised controlled trial. PLoS Medicine. 2020;17(1):
e1002997 . DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002997 - He J, Ouyang N, Guo X, Sun G, Li Z, Mu J, et al. CRHCP Study Group. Effectiveness of a non-physician community health-care provider-led intensive blood pressure intervention versus usual care on cardiovascular disease (CRHCP): An open-label, blinded-endpoint, cluster-randomised trial. Lancet. 2023;401(10380):928–938. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02603-4
- Ojji D, Aigah A, Dulli L, Iwelunmor J, MAP-IT Study Team. Early stakeholder engagement lessons from managing hypertension among people living with human-immunodeficiency virus: An integrated model (MAP-IT). European Heart Journal. 2022;43(25):2347–2349. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehac159
- Stanaway JD, Afshin A, Gakidou E, Lim SS, Abate D, Abate KH, et al. GBD 2017 Risk Factor Collaborators. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 84 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Stu. The Lancet. 2018;392(10159):1923–1994. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32225-6
- Polgreen LA, Han J, Carter BL, Ardery GP, Coffey CS, Chrischilles EA, et al. Cost-effectiveness of a physician-pharmacist collaboration intervention to improve blood pressure control. Hypertension. 2015;66:1145–1151. DOI: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.06023
- Padwal RS, So H, Wood PW, McAlister FA, Siddiqui M, Norris CM, et al. Cost-effectiveness of home blood pressure telemonitoring and case management in the secondary prevention of cerebrovascular disease in Canada. Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 2019;21:159–168. DOI: 10.1111/jch.13459
- Jafar TH, Islam M, Bux R, Poulter N, Hatcher J, Chaturvedi N, et al. Cost-effectiveness of community-based strategies for blood pressure control in a low-income developing country: findings from a cluster-randomized, factorial-controlled trial. Circulation. 2011;124(15):1615–1625. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.039990
- Proctor EK, Powell BJ, McMillen JC. Implementation strategies: recommendations for specifying and reporting. Implement Sci. 2013 Dec 1;8:
139 . DOI: 10.1186/1748-5908-8-139. PMID: 24289295; PMCID: PMC3882890.
