Table 1
Socio-demographic Characteristics of Young Adult Participants Ages 18–30 Years.
| TOTAL N (%) (N = 957*) | FEMALE N (%) (N = 493) | MALE N (%) (N = 464) | P-VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | ||||
| Median (IQR) | 24 (21–27) | 25 (21–27) | 24 (21–27) | 0.60 |
| 18–24 | 494 (51.6) | 245 (49.7) | 249 (53.7) | 0.25 |
| 25–30 | 463 (48.4) | 248 (50.3) | 215 (46.3) | |
| Income | ||||
| <1 USD/day | 757 (79.5) | 381 (77.9) | 376 (81.2) | 0.24 |
| ࣙ1 USD/day | 195 (20.5) | 108 (22.1) | 87 (18.8) | |
| Education | ||||
| None | 10 (1.1) | 8 (1.6) | 2 (0.4) | 0.02 |
| Primary | 38 (4.0) | 26 (5.3) | 12 (2.6) | |
| Secondary or Higher | 904 (94.9) | 455 (93.1) | 449 (97.0) |
[i] *Number of missing data points due to participant non-response include: 5 income; 5 education.
Table 2
Prevalent CVD Risk Factors among Young Adult Participants Ages 18–30 Years.
| TOTAL N (%) (N = 957*) | FEMALE N (%) (N = 493) | MALE N (%) (N = 464) | p-VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood Pressure | ||||
| Mean Systolic blood pressure (SD) | 110.6 (12.6) | 106.4 (11.4) | 115.2 (12.3) | <0.001 |
| Mean Diastolic blood pressure (SD) | 65.0 (10.2) | 65.65 (10.2) | 64.25 (10.1) | 0.05 |
| Normal (SBP < 120 or DBP < 80) | 731 (76.5) | 423 (85.9) | 308 (66.4) | |
| Elevated BP (SBP 120–129 and DBP < 80) | 116 (12.1) | 26 (5.3) | 90 (19.4) | <0.001 |
| Stage 1 Hypertension (SBP 130–139 or DBP 80–89) | 76 (7.9) | 27 (5.5) | 49 (10.5) | 0.005 |
| Stage 2 Hypertension (SBP > 140 or DBP > 90) | 33 (3.5) | 16 (3.3) | 17 (3.7) | 0.86 |
| High BP, Stage 1 or 2 Hypertension | 225 (23.5) | 69 (14.0) | 156 (33.6) | <0.001 |
| BMI | ||||
| Median (IQR) | 21.8 (19.8–24.7) | 23.2 (20.4–27.0) | 20.8 (19.4–23.6) | <0.001 |
| Underweight (BMI < 18.5) | 97 (10.2) | 38 (7.7) | 59 (12.7) | <0.001 |
| Normal (BMI 18.5 – <25) | 635 (66.6) | 280 (57.0) | 355 (76.7) | |
| Overweight (BMI 25–30) | 157 (16.4) | 117 (23.8) | 40 (8.6) | |
| Obese (BMI > 30) | 65 (6.8) | 56 (11.4) | 9 (1.9) | |
| Dyslipidemia | ||||
| Median (IQR) | 88 (71–108) | 94 (78–116) | 82 (66–99) | <0.001 |
| (LDL-C) ࣙ 100 mg/dL | 322 (34.9) | 216 (45.1) | 106 (23.9) | <0.001 |
| (LDL-C) < 100 mg/dL | 601 (65.1) | 263 (54.9) | 338 (76.1) | |
| Kidney Disease | ||||
| Microalbuminuria | ||||
| Urine ACR ≥ 30 mg/g | 48 (6.2) | 29 (7.6) | 19 (4.8) | 0.14 |
| Urine ACR < 30 mg/g | 727 (93.8) | 352 (92.4) | 375 (95.2) | |
| Creatine clearance | ||||
| eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 | 2 (0.2) | 2 (0.4) | 0 | 0.52 |
| eGFR ≥ 60 mL/min/1.73 | 923 (99.7) | 479 (99.6) | 444 (100.0) | |
| KDIGO** risk category (combined eGFR and ACR) | ||||
| Low Risk | 716 (93.6) | 346 (91.2) | 369 (95.1) | 0.09 |
| Medium Risk/High Risk/Very High Risk | 49 (6.4) | 31 (8.2) | 19 (4.9) | |
| Diabetes Mellitus | 6 (0.01) | 3 (0.01) | 3 (0.01) | 1.0 |
| Current Smoking Status | ||||
| Current, No | 916 (96.3) | 475 (97.1) | 441 (95.2) | 0.23 |
| Current, Yes | 35 (3.7) | 14 (2.9) | 21 (4.5) | |
| Lifetime Smoking History | ||||
| Any lifetime smoking | 60 (6.3) | 17 (3.5) | 43 (9.3) | 0.001 |
| No lifetime smoking | 889 (93.4) | 470 (96.5) | 419 (90.7) | |
| Alcohol Use | ||||
| Low (≤1 drink a day) | 521 (74.4) | 244 (76.5) | 277 (72.7) | 0.29 |
| Moderate-high (more than 1 drink a day) | 179 (25.6) | 75 (23.5) | 104 (27.3) | |
| Physical Inactivity | ||||
| <150 min/week | 446 (46.9) | 214 (43.6) | 232 (50.1) | 0.06 |
| >150 min/week | 505 (53.1) | 274 (55.8) | 231 (49.9) | |
| Multiple Risk Factors | ||||
| 0 risk factors | 160 (16.7) | 78 (15.8) | 82 (17.7) | 0.19 |
| 1 risk factor | 331 (34.6) | 166 (33.7) | 165 (35.6) | 0.49 |
| 2+ risk factors | 466 (48.7) | 249 (50.5) | 217 (46.8) |
[i] *Number of missing data points due to participant non-response or unavailable laboratory results include: 1 BP measurement, 3 BMI, 34 dyslipidemia, 182 microalbuminuria, 32 creatine clearance, 6 current smoking status, 8 lifetime smoking history, 257 alcohol use, 6 physical inactivity, 5 diabetes mellitus.**KDGIO = Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes are criteria for diagnosing chronic kidney disease.
Figure 1
Average Systolic and Diastolic BP by Age, Stratified by Sex.
Table 3
Factors Associated with Elevated Blood Pressure (BP) and Dyslipidemia.
| ELEVATED BP aOR* (95%CI) | p-VALUE | DYSLIPIDEMIA aOR* (95%CI) | p-VALUE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | ||||
| Per 1-year increase | 1.10 (1.06–1.15) | <0.001 | 1.13 (1.08–1.17) | <0.001 |
| 18–24 years | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||
| 25–30 years | 1.52 (1.09, 2.11) | 0.005 | 1.81 (1.34–2.44) | <0.001 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||
| Female | 0.23 (0.16, 0.33) | <0.001 | 2.13 (1.57–2.89) | <0.001 |
| BMI | ||||
| Normal (BMI 18.5 – < 25) | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||
| Underweight (BMI < 18.5) | 0.85 (0.48, 1.45) | 0.572 | 0.57 (0.32–0.98) | 0.05 |
| Overweight (BMI 25–30) | 2.21 (1.41, 3.47) | 0.002 | 1.73 (1.17–2.55) | 0.007 |
| Obese (BMI > 30) | 2.44 (1.25, 4.64) | 0.020 | 2.80 (1.61–4.96) | <0.001 |
| Income | ||||
| <1 USD/day | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) | ||
| ࣙ1 USD/day | 0.90 (0.60–1.32) | 0.59 | 0.99 (0.69–1.41) | 0.96 |
| Education | ||||
| None | 3.85 (0.91–14.77) | 0.05 | 1.46 (0.39–5.52) | 0.56 |
| Primary | 1.41 (0.62–3.00) | 0.38 | 0.68 (0.31–1.41) | 0.31 |
| Secondary or Higher | 1 (ref) | 1 (ref) |
[i] *Model adjusted for age, sex, BMI, income, and education.