References
- Baldasano, J. M., Soriano, C., & Boada, L. (1999). Emission inventory for greenhouse gases in the City of Barcelona, 1987–1996. Atmospheric Environment, 33(23), 3765–3775. 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00086-2
- Berghauser Pont, M., & Haupt, P. (2023). Spacematrix: Space, density and urban form—Revised edition. TU Delft OPEN Books. 10.59490/mg.38
- Butters, C., Cheshmehzangi, A., Bakhshoodeh, R., Butters, C., Cheshmehzangi, A., & Bakhshoodeh, R. (2024). Sustainable construction: The embodied carbon impact of infrastructures and landscaping. Urban Science, 8(3). 10.3390/urbansci8030076
- Carruthers, J. I., & Ulfarsson, G. F. (2003). Urban sprawl and the cost of public services. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 30(4), 503–522. 10.1068/b12847
- CIBSE. (2023). Embodied carbon in building services: A calculation methodology (TM65). Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE).
https://www.cibse.org/knowledge-research/knowledge-portal/embodied-carbon-in-building-services-a-calculation-methodology-tm65 - Conzen, M. R. G. (1960). Alnwick, Northumberland: A study in town-plan analysis (Transactions and Papers, Institute of British Geographers No. 27). Wiley. 10.2307/621094
- Dixit, M. K., Culp, C. H., & Fernández-Solís, J. L. (2013). System boundary for embodied energy in buildings: A conceptual model for definition. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21, 153–164. 10.1016/j.rser.2012.12.037
- Du, P., Wood, A., Stephens, B., & Song, X. (2015). Life-cycle energy implications of downtown high-rise vs. suburban low-rise living: An overview and quantitative case study for Chicago. Buildings, 5(3), 1003–1024. 10.3390/buildings5031003
- European Commission. (2011). BS EN 15978:2011: Sustainability of construction works. Assessment of environmental performance of buildings. Calculation method.
https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-15978-2011-sustainability-of-construction-works-assessment-of-environmental-performance-of-buildings-calculation-method/ - European Commission. (2024, March 13). Level(s).
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/circular-economy/levels_en - Forsythe, P., & Ding, G. (2020). Greenhouse gas emissions from excavation on residential construction sites. Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 14(4), 1–10. 10.3316/informit.804041158902792
- Gallent, N., Morphet, J., Chiu, R. L. H., Filion, P., Fischer, K. F., Gurran, N., Li, P., Schwartz, A., & Stead, D. (2020). International experience of public infrastructure delivery in support of housing growth. Cities, 107,
102920 . 10.1016/j.cities.2020.102920 - Glaeser, E. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2010). The greenness of cities: Carbon dioxide emissions and urban development. Journal of Urban Economics, 67(3), 404–418. 10.1016/j.jue.2009.11.006
- Government of Ireland. (2021). Housing for all—A new housing plan for Ireland.
https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/ef5ec-housing-for-all-a-new-housing-plan-for-ireland/#view-the-plan - Government of Ireland. (2025). Climate action plan 2021—Securing our future.
https://www.gov.ie/en/press-release/16421-climate-action-plan-2021-securing-our-future/ - Hack, J., Prytula, M., Rieniets, T., & Rosenberger, J. (2025). Life cycle assessment for urban planning: A modular approach to integrating buildings and infrastructure. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 5(6), 5195–5219. 10.1007/s43615-025-00671-8
- Hegarty, R. O., & Kinnane, O. (2023). A whole life carbon analysis of the Irish residential sector—Past, present and future. Energy and Climate Change, 4,
100101 . 10.1016/j.egycc.2023.100101 - Heinonen, J., & Junnila, S. (2011). Implications of urban structure on carbon consumption in metropolitan areas. Environmental Research Letters, 6(1),
014018 . 10.1088/1748-9326/6/1/014018 - ISTRUCTE. (2025, January 20). How to calculate embodied carbon (third edition). Institution of Structural Engineers.
https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/how-to-calculate-embodied-carbon/ - Jones, C., & Kammen, D. M. (2014). Spatial distribution of U.S. household carbon footprints reveals suburbanization undermines greenhouse gas benefits of urban population density. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(2), 895–902. 10.1021/es4034364
- Kayaçetin, N. C., & Tanyer, A. M. (2020). Embodied carbon assessment of residential housing at urban scale. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 117,
109470 . 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109470 - Koezjakov, A., Urge-Vorsatz, D., Crijns-Graus, W., & van den Broek, M. (2018). The relationship between operational energy demand and embodied energy in Dutch residential buildings. Energy and Buildings, 165, 233–245. 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.036
- Kotaji, S., Schuurmans, A., & Edwards, S. (2003). Life-cycle Assessment in building and construction: A state-of-the-art report, 2003. Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC).
https://repositorium.uminho.pt/server/api/core/bitstreams/f5cb5bcc-912e-4ff5-ab1f-87a867371b2d/content - Kropf, K. (2014). Ambiguity in the definition of built form. Urban Morphology, 18, 41–57. 10.51347/jum.v18i1.3995
- Kropf, K. (2017).
Aspects of urban form . In The handbook of urban morphology (pp. 20–37). Wiley. 10.1002/9781118747711.ch3 - Lotteau, M., Loubet, P., Pousse, M., Dufrasnes, E., & Sonnemann, G. (2015). Critical review of life cycle assessment (LCA) for the built environment at the neighborhood scale. Building and Environment, 93, 165–178. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.06.029
- Mirabella, N., Röck, M., Ruschi Mendes Saade, M., Spirinckx, C., Bosmans, M., Allacker, K., & Passer, A. (2018). Strategies to improve the energy performance of buildings: A review of their life cycle impact. Buildings, 8(8), article
8 . 10.3390/buildings8080105 - Moore, T. L. C., & Hunt, W. F. (2013). Predicting the carbon footprint of urban stormwater infrastructure. Ecological Engineering, 58, 44–51. 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.06.021
- Murata, T., & Kawai, N. (2018). Degradation of the urban ecosystem function due to soil sealing: Involvement in the heat island phenomenon and hydrologic cycle in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 64(2), 145–155. 10.1080/00380768.2018.1439342
- Nichols, B. G., & Kockelman, K. M. (2014). Life-cycle energy implications of different residential settings: Recognizing buildings, travel, and public infrastructure. Energy Policy, 68, 232–242. 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.12.062
- OECD. (2018). Rethinking urban sprawl: Moving towards sustainable cities. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 10.1787/9789264189881-en
- Pan, W., Li, K., & Teng, Y. (2018). Rethinking system boundaries of the life cycle carbon emissions of buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 90, 379–390. 10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.057
- Pomponi, F., Saint, R., Arehart, J. H., Gharavi, N., & D’Amico, B. (2021). Decoupling density from tallness in analysing the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of cities. Npj Urban Sustainability, 1(1), article
1 . 10.1038/s42949-021-00034-w - Rankin, K. H., & Saxe, S. (2024). A future growth model for building more housing and infrastructure with less embodied greenhouse gas. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(25), A–L. 10.1021/acs.est.4c02070
- RICS. (2024). Whole life carbon assessment (WLCA) for the built environment. The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS).
https://www.rics.org/profession-standards/rics-standards-and-guidance/sector-standards/construction-standards/whole-life-carbon-assessment - Ries, R., & Mahdavi, A. (2001). Integrated computational life-cycle assessment of buildings. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 15(1),
59 . 10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3801(2001)15:1(59) - Röck, M., Sørensen, A., Tozan, B., Steinmann, J., Horup, L. H., Le Den, X., & Birgisdottir, H. (2022). Towards embodied carbon benchmarks for buildings in Europe—#2 Setting the baseline: A bottom-up approach. Zenodo. 10.5281/ZENODO.5895051
- Romanovska, L., Osmond, P., & Oldfield, P. (2023). Life-cycle-thinking in the assessment of urban green infrastructure: Systematic scoping review. Environmental Research Letters, 18(6),
063001 . 10.1088/1748-9326/accfae - Ruuska, A. P., & Häkkinen, T. M. (2015). The significance of various factors for GHG emissions of buildings. International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 8(4–5), 317–330. 10.1080/19397038.2014.934931
- Schiller, G. (2007). Urban infrastructure: Challenges for resource efficiency in the building stock. Building Research & Information, 35(4), 399–411. 10.1080/09613210701217171
- Sigurðardóttir, H. S., Heinonen, J., Ögmundarson, Ó., & Árnadóttir, Á. (2023). Neighborhood-level LCA and hotspot analysis of embodied emissions of a new urban area in Reykjavík. Sustainability, 15(6), article
6 . 10.3390/su15065327 - Simonen, K., Rodriguez, B. X., & De Wolf, C. (2017). Benchmarking the embodied carbon of buildings. Technology | Architecture + Design, 1(2), 208–218. 10.1080/24751448.2017.1354623
- Sjökvist, S., Francart, N., Balouktsi, M., & Birgisdottir, H. (2025). Embodied climate impacts in urban development: A neighbourhood case study. Buildings & Cities, 6(1). 10.5334/bc.478
- Smith, A. D., & Gill, G. (2022). Residensity: A carbon analysis of residential typologies. ORO Editions.
- Stephan, A., Crawford, R. H., & De Myttenaere, K. (2013). Multi-scale life cycle energy analysis of a low-density suburban neighbourhood in Melbourne, Australia. Building and Environment, 68, 35–49. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.06.003
- Trigaux, D., Allacker, K., & De Troyer, F. (2014). Model for the environmental impact assessment of neighbourhoods. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 181, 103–114. 10.2495/EID140091
- Troy, P., Holloway, D., Pullen, S., & Bunker, R. (2003). Embodied and operational energy consumption in the city. Urban Policy and Research, 21(1), 9–44. 10.1080/0811114032000062128
- UN-Habitat. (2020). World cities report 2020: The value of sustainable urbanization.
https://unhabitat.org/world-cities-report-2020-the-value-of-sustainable-urbanization - United Nations. (2015). The 17 goals.
https://sdgs.un.org/goals - Yan, Y., Kuang, W., Zhang, C., & Chen, C. (2015). Impacts of impervious surface expansion on soil organic carbon—A spatially explicit study. Scientific Reports, 5(1),
17905 . 10.1038/srep17905 - Zirkle, G., Lal, R., & Augustin, B. (2011). Modeling carbon sequestration in home lawns. HortScience, 46(5), 808–814. 10.21273/HORTSCI.46.5.808