Table 1
Summary of the parameters used in the literature, which includes embodied carbon (EC) within the life-cycle scope and elements of siteworks within the physical scope.
| REFERENCE | FUNCTIONAL UNIT/PHYSICAL SCOPE | BUILDINGS/TYPOLOGIES | LANDSCAPING/EXTERNAL AREAS INCLUDED | SERVICE INFRASTRUCTURES INCLUDED | LIFE-CYCLE STAGES | METHOD | LIFE SPAN (years) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Du et al. (2015) | High-rise urban area and low-rise suburban area | Prototypical constructions of typologies | Roadways and parking only | No | Cradle to grave | Hybrid LCA | 50 |
| Butters et al. (2024) | Two neighbourhood case studies | Modelled typologies | Yes | No | Cradle to grave | Hybrid LCA | 50 |
| Hack et al. (2025) | Synthetic urban models | Modelled typologies | Roadways only | Modelled estimates | Cradle to grave | Process LCA | 50 |
| Kayaçetin & Tanyer (2020) | Three neighbourhood-scale case studies | Three residential case studies | Yes | No | Cradle to grave | Hybrid LCA | 50 |
| Nichols & Kockelman (2014) | Five neighbourhood-scale case studies | Modelled typologies | Yes | Yes, estimated based on existing research | Cradle to grave | Hybrid LCA | Per annum |
| Pomponi et al. (2021) | 1 km2 synthetic urban models | Modelled typologies | Yes | No | Cradle to grave | Process LCA | 60 |
| Rankin & Saxe (2024) | Existing neighbourhoods | Existing buildings and infrastructure | Not defined | Estimated using geographical information system (GIS) tools | Cradle to gate (A1–A3) | Process LCA | 60 (baseline case) |
| Troy et al. (2003) | Six neighbourhood-scale case studies | Modelled typologies based on age | Roadways only | Foul drainage and water supply only | Cradle to grave | Input–output LCA | 60 |
| Sigurðardóttir et al. (2023) | Neighbourhood-scale case study | Apartments and ancillary buildings | Yes | No | Cradle to gate | Process LCA | Not stated |
| Sjökvist et al. (2025) | Neighbourhood-scale case study | Archetype buildings | Yes | Yes, proprietary tool used | A1–A5, B4, C3–C4 | Process LCA | Not stated |
| Stephan et al. (2013) | Suburban neighbourhood | Modelled typologies | Estimated | Modelled estimates | Cradle to grave | Input–output LCA | 100 |
| Smith & Gill (2022) | Neighbourhood-scale synthetic models | Five archetypes of residential construction | Yes | Modelled underground services | Cradle to grave | Process LCA | 40 |
| Trigaux et al. (2014) | Four abstracted neighbourhood models | Modelled typologies | Modelled based on archetypes | No | Cradle to grave | Process LCA | 60 |
[i] Note: LCA = life-cycle assessment.
Figure 1
Case study project site plan with the three residential typologies.
Figure 2
Physical scope of life-cycle assessment (LCA) organised by levels of urban morphology.
Figure 3
Comparison between scopes of different methodologies.
Figure 4
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) scope for low-rise houses (left) and apartment building (right) defined by categories of urban morphology.
Source: Adapted from the multilevel diagram of Kropf (2014).
Table 2
Parameters of the four highest impact materials for each typology for stages A1–A3.
| DWELLING TYPOLOGY | MATERIAL (t) | A1–A3 GWP (kg CO2e/kg) | CARBON FACTOR SOURCE | EC PER DWELLING (kg CO2e) | EC/m2 (kg CO2e/m2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| House | |||||
| Concrete in-situ 28/35 Mpa | 37.32 | 0.13 | ICE Database | 4,704 | 40 |
| Concrete blocks: medium density | 29.92 | 0.10 | ICE Database | 2,985 | 25 |
| Insulation: mineral wool | 2.03 | 1.31 | ICE Database | 2,663 | 23 |
| Concrete roof tiles | 5.78 | 0.27 | Circular ecology | 1,543 | 13 |
| Duplex | |||||
| Concrete in-situ 28/35 Mpa | 34.20 | 0.13 | ICE Database | 8,621 | 42 |
| Brick | 11.94 | 0.21 | Cambridge Architectural Research (CAR) | 5,088 | 25 |
| Lightweight concrete blocks | 8.68 | 0.26 | ICE Database | 4,861 | 23 |
| Insulation: mineral wool | 1.65 | 1.31 | ICE Database | 4,332 | 21 |
| Apartment | |||||
| Precast concrete slabs | 42.81 | 0.22 | ICE Database | 9,366 | 101 |
| Concrete in-situ 28/35 Mpa | 30.45 | 0.13 | ICE Database | 3,791 | 41 |
| Stainless steel | 0.81 | 4.41 | National average Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) | 3,558 | 38 |
| Cement mortar (1:3 mix) | 16.60 | 0.18 | ICE Database | 3,041 | 33 |
[i] Note: EC = embodied carbon; GWP = global warming potential; ICE = Inventory of Carbon and Energy; Mpa = megapascal.
Figure 5
Embodied carbon (EC) of each typology by building element per m2: stages A1–A5.
Table 3
Stages A1–A5: combined results including landscaping plus infrastructure.
| DWELLING TYPOLOGY | TOTAL EC PER DWELLING, STAGES A1–A5 (kg CO2e) | GROSS INTERNAL FLOOR AREA (GIFA) (m2) | EC/m2 FLOOR AREA, STAGES A1–A5 (kg CO2e/m2) | EC PER DWELLING, INCLUDING LANDSCAPING AND INFRASTRUCTURE (kg CO2e) | EC/m2 INCLUDING LANDSCAPING AND INFRASTRUCTURE (kg CO2e/m2) | PERCENTAGE EC FOR LANDSCAPING AND INFRASTRUCTURE (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| House | 37,239 | 118.0 | 316 | 49,546 | 420 | 32% |
| Duplex | 40,941 | 103.5 | 396 | 49,199 | 475 | 19% |
| Apartment | 40,662 | 97.7 | 437 | 45,908 | 494 | 12% |
[i] Note: EC = embodied carbon.
Figure 6
Difference between foul water services layout for 26 low-rise dwellings (left) and 22 unit apartment building (right).
Figure 7
Stages A1–A5 kg CO2e of infrastructures per dwelling typology by service utility (above) and A1–A5 kg CO2e of landscaping per dwelling typology (below) by landscape element.
Figure 8
Stages A1–A5 t CO2e by public infrastructure service utility (above) and material (below).
Figure 9
Stages A1–A5 t CO2e per dwelling by urban morphology and dwelling typology.