The Portrayal of Weird Weather as a Psychological Trigger to Act Against Climate Change: An Exploration into the Concept of ‘Anthropocene Uncanny’ in Kingsolver’s Flight Behavior

1. Introduction

In Flight Behavior, Barbara Kingsolver sheds light on the complexities of our changing world by exploring the impact of climate change on a rural community. It follows the story of Dellarobia Turnbow, a young mother who discovers the migration of monarch butterflies whose behavior is disrupted by environmental changes, leading to events that challenge Dellarobia’s beliefs and way of life. In this novel, Kingsolver effectively portrays the transition from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism. This transitivity provokes the feeling called the uncanny, which disrupts the characters’ routines, prompting them to recognize the fundamental interdependence between the human and non-human world. This psychological state, according to Freud, takes place when a used-to-be familiar entity or situation that was known for a long time devastates us with horror and unfamiliarity (1–2). Freud argues that the uncanny is referred to as a “homely” and “native” phenomenon that suddenly disrupts one’s sense of security (220). Similar to Freud, Kathrine Withy believes that the uncanny is a phenomenon or situation that is marked by familiarity and unfamiliarity, disrupting the typical perception of the familiar situation (9). Withy further contends that the term ‘uncanny’ is correlated with quasi-objects that are apparently inanimate but inherently animate. By applying her viewpoint to the climate change studies, natural forces, improbable and abnormal events, such as intense floods, tornadoes, prolonged droughts, unprecedented heatwaves, extraordinary mudslides, and hurricanes (Ghosh 32) can be regarded as pseudo-lifeless entities that elicit the uncanny feeling by intertwining the notions of living and non-living. Ghosh argues that this simultaneity is created from a previously overlooked and suppressed phenomenon, such as weather conditions, which were once seen as passive but now emerge as active forces (Stark et al. 23, 40). Similarly, in climate fiction, the climate crisis, as a quasi-object, can be perceived as nature’s response to human overpopulation, blurring the boundaries between animate and inanimate. In this way, weather patterns become uncanny as they “disturb the familiar separation between the usual and the unusual, provoking the feeling of unfamiliarity toward familiar and proper weather conditions” (Bubandt, “Non-secular” 2). Therefore, if the uncanny is represented as a “crisis of the natural” (Royle 1), “the Anthropocene epoch is a truly an uncanny time, when the proper separation between culture and nature, subject and object, human and non-human, life and non-life – is collapsing” (Bubandt, “Non-secular” 3). The collapse of the established boundaries causes characters to experience the uncanny and perceive the world by expanding their “circle of concern” (Nussbaum qtd in. Goodbody and Johns-Putra 15) and acting against the climate crisis. Similarly, in Flight Behavior the climate becomes uncanny, which makes Dellarobia, the main character, deal with different psychological stages of refusal, rejection, and acceptance as the potential response to the disastrous effects of anthropogenic activities that lead to the climate crisis.

Barbara Kingsolver’s contributions to climate change in her novels are highly regarded by scholars, particularly with Flight Behavior serving as a significant subject of analysis within eco-political, eco-feminist, and eco-social frameworks. Heather Houser, for instance, applies a Marxist Feminist perspective to Kingsolver’s novel, arguing that Dellarobia’s resistance to domesticity offers opportunities to blend scientific and experiential epistemologies in environmental consequences (96). Paul W. Taylor, in his article, advocates for an eco-socialist point of view by challenging the Cartesian dualism and the anthropocentric hierarchy it upholds (13) to present an egalitarian view toward nature, which is also often associated with feminine qualities due to the nurturing role of nature on Earth. Although the existing research predominantly focuses on forecasting the impact of eco-feminist, eco-political, and eco-social issues on climate, the study at hand seeks to illuminate an area that remains underexplored in the current literature of Flight Behavior, namely human psychological capacities that encourage proactive responses to climate challenges. In the case of eco-psychoanalysis, only a few studies have addressed the impact of climate change on the characters’ mental states. Sr. Innyasamma Gade’s research, for example, delves into the detrimental effects of global warming on the protagonist’s psyche, resulting in a sense of resignation and passivity in Dellarobia. Gade argues that Dellarobia’s internal dialogues reveal how climate denial acts as a coping mechanism for individuals in Tennessee, assisting them in navigating the intense emotions triggered by environmental changes (125). Similarly, in Goodbody’s analysis, the psychological studies unveil the ‘blindness’ of Appalachian farmers to the environmental crisis, showcasing the inadequacy of their response to climate change risks (14). However, in this study, by employing Freud and Bubandt’s concept of the uncanny, I propose that the characters’ uncanny experiences lead to an awareness of the urgency to address climate change. Furthermore, I contend that these uncanny feelings are influenced by various psychological and social factors, including gender discrimination, class disparities, rural marginalization, economic conditions, and religious influences, which impact the characters’ decisions to take action or remain passive in response to climate change.

Although I have explored the uncanny feeling in Persian eco-poetry and J.G. Ballard’s The Drowned World (1962) in the context of climate change, focusing on the urban and monstrous uncanny within animals and reptilians as both prey and predator (Mohajeri 135), in this article I intend to explore the psychological aspects of the Anthropocene uncanny, focusing on the main characters of Flight Behavior, specifically Dellarobia and her husband Cub, and how their experiences drive Dellarobia to take action against climate change. However, my study is not limited to the Anthropocene uncanny as a trigger to act against climate change. By examining the concept of the Anthropocene uncanny,¹ I also shed light on the profound impact of the characters’ experiences on their reactions to climate change. It is crucial to acknowledge that their responses are intricately shaped by various factors such as gender, economy, and religion, influencing their mental state and guiding their choices and attitudes towards climate action. These additional layers of complexity reveal that even though certain characters may recognize the uncanny, societal norms, religious convictions, and economic constraints can prevent them from addressing the pressing issues of climate change, leading them to climate denial. In conclusion, I prove that the feeling of the uncanny is a psychological state influenced by individuals’ socioeconomic backgrounds, religious beliefs, gender dynamics, and the obstacles that may impede their efforts to act against climate change. Therefore, while some research characterizes Appalachian farmers as ‘blind,’ regarding the risks of climate change, I highlight that they seem to possess an understanding of the uncanny feeling toward the climate crisis. However, their ability to take transformative actions and environmentally conscious steps is hindered by their working and living conditions and their religious beliefs.

2. Flight Behavior

Flight Behavior follows the story of a young woman who discovers a stunning phenomenon of butterflies that have migrated to a rural Tennessee town due to the effects of climate change that has disrupted their usual migration site in Mexico.² The arrival of these butterflies leads her into a psychological state known as the uncanny, which makes her take a step toward environmental activism. This uncanny feeling is depicted in the opening pages of the novel as Dellarobia voices her dissatisfaction with the enduring, dreary, and stagnant November sky. She likens the weather conditions to an inadequate drywall job, symbolizing a passive and lifeless entity. This suggests that the weather has remained unchanged for a significant period of time, reminiscent of years gone by (Kingsolver 3). Moreover, the phrase “whoever was in charge of weather” (2) underscores the villagers’ belief that weather fluctuations are controlled by a higher authority, possibly ‘God.’ To them, the weather is often seen as a non-living phenomenon controlled by a living entity. However, when the weather takes a frightening turn and destroys a once-majestic tree, it makes the villagers feel uneasy and experience a sense of unfamiliarity, which leads to the feeling of the uncanny:

At this point, the narrator emphasizes that the once-resilient tree roots, which had withstood for a long time, are now being eradicated by relentless high precipitation and heavy rainfall. This terrifying phenomenon has deeply shaken Dellarobia’s father-in-law to his core, as he previously believed that nature was a passive force guided by God. However, this time, the weather’s unexpected events have shattered his perception, leaving him in a state of bewilderment and an uncanny feeling. Furthermore, the sense of defamiliarization is conveyed through the statement that “people were shocked” (Kingsolver 7), highlighting the characters’ disorientation in response to the unfamiliar weather. This uncertainty stems from their inability to determine whether nature is animate or inanimate, which also resonates with Freud’s theory on Das Unheimliche, as it evokes the uncanny feeling in characters. Freud, drawing on Jentsch, “ascribes the essential factor in the production of the feeling of uncanniness to intellectual uncertainty; so that the uncanny would always be that in which one does not know where one is, as it were” (2). He believes, “in telling a story, one of the most successful devices for easily creating uncanny effects is to leave the reader [and the characters] in uncertainty whether a particular figure in the story is a human being or an automaton [like the weather conditions]” (Freud 5).

In Flight Behavior, Kingsolver employs this psychological state through unnatural and weird weather conditions. This uncertainty, whether nature and weather conditions are “living or inanimate … creates a kind of uncertainty in the characters and readers” (Freud 7). In Flight Behavior, the climate appears to be alive, which Freud claims is “a particularly favorable condition for awakening uncanny sensations when there is intellectual uncertainty whether an object is alive or not, and when an inanimate object becomes too much like an animate one” (9). Therefore, in this novel, the changing climate happens to be assimilated to living phenomena and creatures that the characters are unable to distinguish between living and non-living phenomena. Despite Cub’s past dismissals of weather forecasts, considering them as insignificant by saying “that’s nothing” (Kingsolver 7), the uncanny situation takes an unexpected turn when the characters admit to never having encountered such extreme conditions before. These feelings arise when climate “like ghosts and witches, teeter on the border between being and not-being” (Bubandt, Empty seashell 4), living and non-living. Thus, weather conditions that were previously ‘homely’ become “unnatural by default, uncannily monstrous rather than homey and seemingly maternal” (Stengers 129). That is to say, weather conditions in Anthropocene narratives, like Flight Behavior, awaken the sense of defamiliarization and motivate the characters to act against climate change. This defamiliarization emphasizes nature’s active role as a living phenomenon, indicating that it is not God but nature itself that enacts retributions. Therefore, “nature assumes the responsibility of self-defense, punishing [the characters] for their overconsumption and exploitation of natural resources” (Andersen, Climate fiction 44). However, in Flight Behavior, this issue arises when Dellarobia and her husband, Cub, argue about the unusual weather conditions. Cub is hesitant to accept that God may not play a role in weather patterns. Accordingly, he struggles to grasp whether nature is an active or passive phenomenon:

While both Dellarobia and Cub experience the uncanny, Cub intensifies his uncanny feeling towards nature by attributing the weather conditions to God’s command, whereas Dellarobia simply acknowledges her uncanny feelings by remarking, “the weather has turned weird” (360). The narrator further highlights the characters’ uncanny feelings as they struggle to distinguish between the months:

Displaying climate change among Tennessee’s climate deniers draws the characters’ attention to the active nature, and sheds light on how humans, as a significant geological force, are impacting nature. This perspective underscores the critical nature of global warming and highlights the undeniable consequences of human activities on the planet. By acknowledging climate change, it becomes evident that urgent collective action is needed to address and minimize its effects in order to protect the human legacy on Earth. In Flight Behavior, the critical role of refusal, rejection, and acceptance in climate change discourse is portrayed through the lens of the uncanny feeling. This internal conflict evokes both fear and awe, which complements Freud’s theories on the uncanny. Dellarobia and Cub’s uncertainty towards nature’s agency reflects their deep-seated fear, prompting Kingsolver’s novel to challenge the ontological status of nature by blurring the boundaries between living and non-living entities. The conversation between Dellarobia and Josefina, a Mexican girl who migrated to Tennessee with her family due to landslides, further highlights the feeling of the uncanny in characters:

Garnett P. Williams highlights the significant impact of minor environmental changes on major natural crises, like flash floods, which have far-reaching effects on other species (184). This idea is further exemplified in Flight Behavior. In the novel, a small migration of monarch butterflies in New Mexico leads to unexpected consequences in mudslides. This suggests that anthropogenic activities affect the butterflies, which ultimately contribute to a flood in Tennessee. These events evoke weird feelings in the characters toward natural forces. Dellarobia’s conversation with her husband demonstrates her simultaneous feelings of certainty and uncertainty towards the weather conditions as an active and passive phenomenon. Her uncanny feeling intensifies when she surfs the internet to find out about the impact of the flood on the local people:

This excerpt highlights that climate change, the migration of monarch butterflies, and the presence of climate refugees collectively contribute to making the world both physically and psychologically inhospitable and unsafe, essentially creating an ‘unhomely,’ and ‘uncanny’ environment. In Flight Behavior, climate change transforms the once familiar environment into an unwelcoming and unfamiliar landscape, compelling individuals to become climate migrants who are forced to abandon their homes, leading to instability and an uncanny feeling. However, this feeling can be viewed as a catalyst for transforming the characters’ relationship with nature and inspiring action against global warming. In the novel, Dellarobia is psychologically overwhelmed by the climate crisis, leading her towards an unsettling sense of the uncanny. This psychological state serves as a driving force for Dellarobia to take action against anthropogenic activities:

Based on the text provided, it is clear that Dellarobia’s deep concern about deforestation and its repercussions on climate change evokes a sense of unease and discomfort within her, prompting her to take a stand against human activities that contribute to these issues. In the case of climate activism, Rebecca Jaremko Bromwich and colleagues argue that individuals “involved in environmental advocacy are often mothers and children; moreover, many women within environmental justice serve as mothers to movements” (9). They further argue that “[t]hese women may or may not have birthed children, but they play foundational roles in giving birth to ideas and in nurturing revolution through their thoughts, actions, creations, and community tending” (9). Moreover, “[t]hese women embody motherhood through their roles as community leaders and through the emotional, domestic, and political labor they share with those they work alongside” (9). Likewise, in Flight Behavior, Dellarobia and local children protest against Bear Turnbow’s logging activities. Their collective action can be seen as an effort to mitigate the impacts of global warming:

Although climate change is a universal challenge, its impacts are not evenly distributed among all individuals. This disparity leads to diverse levels of discomfort, unease, and uncanny feelings among different characters, which underscores the unequal impact of climate change in the Anthropocene epoch, with the burden disproportionately falling on the poor, climate refugees, and marginalized species. In a similar vein, Flight Behavior sheds light on the significant effects of climate change on three communities: the impoverished Mexican climate refugees, the rural community including Dellarobia’s family, and the community of butterflies. These communities grapple with the difficult choice between embracing small-scale tourism for economic gain or engaging in anthropogenic activities, like deforestation, neither of which offers a promising future for these communities. Therefore, the characters’ struggle to navigate the uncanny feeling is intricately linked to the material realities of their lives, which hinder them from taking environmentally conscious actions. Their constrained circumstances, such as economic issues and religious beliefs, serve as barriers to embracing such actions. These inequalities are vividly portrayed in the dialogue between Mr. Akins, the environmental activist, and Dellarobia as they negotiate a contract to mitigate the impacts of climate change:

The text emphasizes how poverty exacerbates the impact of environmental crises for the characters, as Dellarobia and her family struggle with disrupted ecosystems, financial instability, and limited survival options. Their vulnerability starkly contrasts with the other characters, like climate activists and scientists, including Ovid Byron and Mr. Akins, who can protect themselves from the immediate effects of climate change. Flight Behavior, as depicted through the character of Dellarobia and her family, highlights the unequal burden of climate change, underscoring how the poor and marginalized group of society is severely affected by environmental degradation and its subsequent psychological discomfort known as the Anthropocene uncanny. In Flight Behavior, the concept of the Anthropocene uncanny is depicted through climate change and coastal flooding, leading to a psychological crisis for marginalized communities, such as the poor and climate refugees. This crisis also impacts the physical survival of monarch butterflies. Consequently, Dellarobia, who represents a rural marginalized group in society, falls victim to this environmental upheaval, losing her home and facing the challenges of climate change:

Andersen suggests that the monstrous violence of quasi-objects is perceived as the sudden appearance of unsettling weather, potentially carrying an apocalyptic message. This violence in weather conditions is envisioned as both familiar and unfamiliar (Climate fiction 55), intensifying the eerie sensation towards nature and reshaping the relationships between humans and non-humans and among humans themselves (“Cli-fi” 864). What can be inferred from Andersen’s assertion is that the Anthropocene uncanny, along with climate change, has the potential to disrupt agriculture and significantly affect impoverished communities. Furthermore, the increasing unpredictability and severity of extreme weather events, described as uncanny weather, pose an even greater threat to vulnerable populations. These circumstances have the potential to exacerbate the poverty cycle, resulting in psychological challenges and uncanny feelings that may also manifest as gender discrimination.

In the Anthropocene epoch, gender discrimination can intertwine with power dynamics, control, and exploitation, highlighting the importance of considering social justice along with the ecological context. Gender stereotypes “and identities, as well as gendered power structures, are important in facilitating or preventing climate-related conflicts” (Ide et al. 43). Therefore, according to Ide and colleagues, traditional gender roles and power dynamics can broaden the conception of environmental conflict. Indeed, one of the challenges of gender justice during the climate change is the “economic paradigm that promotes growth and individualism, often at the cost of environmental and social well-being” (Spencer i). In the Anthropocene epoch, the matter of gender injustice is explored through feminist and ecological economics to incorporate the “notions of justice into mainstream economic thought” (i), causing an uncanny feeling.

One of the aspects that links gender discrimination to the uncanny nature of the Anthropocene is the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. Women and other marginalized genders are often disproportionately affected by environmental degradation and climate change, which can create a sense of unease and the feeling of uncanny during climate change. Additionally, gender discrimination can also manifest in how certain gender roles and expectations perpetuate harmful environmental practices. For example, traditional notions of masculinity that prioritize dominance and control can contribute to exploitative relationships with nature, leading to a sense of uncanny feeling. Therefore, gender inequality plays a significant role in how individuals experience the uncanny feeling and respond to climate change. Women, especially in developing countries, are often unequally affected by the impacts of climate change and the uncanny feeling due to existing gender inequalities and societal norms. For example, in many communities, women are primarily responsible for tasks such as collecting water, farming, and cooking, which become more challenging as climate change leads to water scarcity, changing agricultural patterns, and aggravating food insecurity. Furthermore, in natural disasters exacerbated by climate change, women are at higher risk of economic and physical exploitation, violence, and displacement, as a result of gender-based violence in such crises.

Moreover, gender discrimination in the realm of climate change is evident in decision-making arenas, where women are frequently marginalized and underrepresented, which constrains their ability to advocate for their needs and interests in climate change policies and programs. Likewise, in Flight Behavior, the theme of gender inequality in the context of climate change and Anthropocene uncanny is woven into the narrative through Dellarobia Turnbow. Dellarobia’s daily struggles as a rural, working-class woman in Appalachia highlight the intersection of gender discrimination and environmental challenges. As she navigates her responsibilities as a wife, mother, and member of a struggling community, her limited opportunities and the feelings of uncanny are intensified by the impacts of climate change. Kingsolver illustrates how traditional gender norms and societal expectations influence Dellarobia’s societal roles and duties. Through her interactions with her husband and other community members, the unequal division of labor and decision-making authority is highlighted, placing women like Dellarobia at the forefront of climate-induced psychological challenges, such as the unsettling feeling of the uncanny. As a result, Dellarobia’s own desires and aspirations are often overlooked or dismissed, underscoring the underlying complexities of gender inequality that restrict her ability to enact significant change in environmental adversities. The constrained access to education and career opportunities exemplifies the depiction of how gender discrimination contributes to Dellarobia’s uncanny feeling:

As a young mother and wife, Dellarobia aspired to further her education and pursue a carreer but was unable to do so due to her domestic roles and the pressure of societal norms. Her desire for personal growth and fulfillment is stifled by the limitations imposed on her as a woman within her rural community. It can be said that Dellarobia’s role within her family and community is largely defined by traditional gender roles, as she is expected to take care of the household and children, limiting her ability to engage in activities that could raise awareness about environmental issues or take proactive steps to address climate change:

The provided excerpt illustrates how Dellarobia’s viewpoints and suggestions are often disregarded, underscoring her lack of influence and autonomy in decision-making processes that could positively impact the environment. Despite her efforts to raise awareness about the butterflies and the effects of climate change, she faces skepticism and apathy from those around her. However, it is hard to argue that the characters, like her husband, Cub, did not experience the uncanny feeling but were constrained to act “as usual” and could not embrace transformative stances and environmentally conscious actions due to their material circumstances and religious beliefs. These factors can significantly influence how individuals perceive and respond to the environmental and societal shifts brought about by the Anthropocene epoch. In Flight Behavior, the convergence of religion and the Anthropocene uncanny provides valuable insights into how individuals, communities, and societies navigate the complexities of our rapidly changing world. This novel further illustrates how religious beliefs can shape perspectives on climate change and the environment, influencing attitudes towards nature and responsibilities towards the planet. The characters Hester, Pastor Bobby, and Cub demonstrate how strongly religious beliefs can shape their understanding of the unusual weather patterns and the enigmatic appearance of monarch butterflies. By contrasting Dellarobia’s scientific explanations with Cub and Hester’s religious viewpoints, the narrative explores the complex relationship between different belief systems and environmental issues, highlighting the further unsettling nature of the Anthropocene:

Therefore, it can be inferred that while some characters may have experienced feelings of the Anthropocene uncanny, they could not fully address them due to their everyday material circumstances and religious beliefs. Despite acknowledging these unsettling experiences, they continued their normal routines and behaviors rather than taking on transformative or environmentally-conscious actions. This shows that the characters’ ability to respond to these psychological states was influenced and restricted by their material concerns, including religion, which highlights the complex interplay between internal psychological experiences and external realities that shape individuals’ responses to climate change.

3. Conclusion

This research explored the profound impact of climate change on the characters of Flight Behavior and their perceptions of environmental degradation, particularly through the lens of the Anthropocene uncanny. By examining how unpredictable weather patterns can evoke feelings of unease and vulnerability, this research highlighted that the uncanny feeling toward weird weather conditions can be seen as a trigger to take urgent action to address the root causes of global warming. On her website, Kingsolver states that with “the cultural rifts deepening into canyons, one issue preoccupied [her] especially: climate change. Many of [her] farming neighbors didn’t believe in it, even as [they] watched [their] our crops being destroyed by new, unpredictable weather patterns” (Finding My Place, Again). She explicitly explains how the idea of climate change motivated her to write Flight Behavior—a novel tackling different issues from rural and urban perspectives on science to religion, climate change, and globalization—by stating that

From the above quotation, it can be inferred that her farming neighbor’s climate denial compelled her to write Flight Behavior. In this way, it can be interpreted that in this novel, Kingsolver encourages readers to deepen their connection with nature, advocate for environmental justice, and strive toward a harmonious coexistence with the natural world. It is through understanding and action that readers can work toward a more sustainable future for all.

The author further underscores the multifaceted nature of the apprehension towards these natural phenomena and highlights the potential for individuals to deepen their connection with nature and take action to protect the environment. Kingsolver also incorporates the concept of the uncanny weather upheavals to illustrate how global warming can defamiliarize once-stable weather conditions, inducing fear and awe in characters toward climate change. This study further underscored that only Dellarobia seemed to experience the psychological state of the uncanny. In contrast, her family did not take any action toward climate change mitigation. This study noted that through the interactions between characters like Dellarobia, Cub, Hester, Dovey, and Byron, Kingsolver sheds light on how the specific vulnerabilities faced by marginalized populations in the face of environmental challenges can affect their intense feeling of the uncanny toward nature. Kingsolver’s narrative prompts readers to engage with their inner nature, advocate for environmental justice, and recognize the interconnectedness between humans and the environment. However, this research also bolded Kingsolver’s exploration of the complexities of taking environmentally committed positions to underscore the challenges faced by individuals constrained by their material living conditions and societal norms, which highlights that it is hard to argue for the uncanny as a psychological state detached from the materiality of the characters’ lives and their living conditions. In other words, it is difficult to argue that some characters did not experience the Anthropocene uncanny; on the contrary, they were often forced to act as if they did not experience it and were not allowed to adopt transformative positions and environmentally committed actions due to their material working and living conditions, as well as religious beliefs. Finally, this research concluded that the Anthropocene uncanny empowers readers to navigate these complexities and advocate for a more sustainable and equitable future for all, while also prompting reflection on the intersections between social and psychological inequity in the Anthropocene epoch.

Competing Interests

The author has no competing interests to declare.