Table 1
Summary of key toxic metals, main sources, and primary health effects.
| METAL | MAIN SOURCES | PRIMARY HEALTH EFFECTS |
|---|---|---|
| Lead (Pb) | Recycling of used lead‑acid batteries, legacy mining, contaminated soil and paint, small aircraft fuel, commodity products | Cardiovascular mortality, Neurodevelopmental impairment, kidney disease |
| Mercury (Hg) | Artisanal and small‑scale gold mining (ASGM), fish consumption, industrial emissions, coal burning | Cognitive deficits, kidney toxicity, cardiovascular disease, neurological symptoms |
| Arsenic (As) | Drinking water, mining and smelting, e‑waste | Cancers of the skin, bladder and lung, skin lesions other than skin cancer, spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, infant mortality, congenital heart disease, respiratory disease, chronic kidney disease, neurodevelopmental effects, ischemic heart disease and carotid artery atherosclerosis |
| Cadmium (Cd) | Mining, battery recycling, fertilizers | Kidney dysfunction, osteoporosis, cancer, cardiovascular disease |
| Uranium (U) | Mining, processing, military | Kidney dysfunction, cancer |
| Chromium (Cr) | E‑waste, tanning, metal plating | Neurodevelopmental issues, stomach cancer |
| Nickel (Ni) | Battery recycling, mining, refining | Dermatitis, occupational asthma, cancer |
| Cobalt (Co) | Battery recycling, mining, refining | Dermatitis, occupational asthma, cancer |
| Lithium (Li) | Battery recycling, mining, refining | Irritation of airways and skin, reproductive effects |
Table 2
Roadmap for mitigating toxic metal hazards.
| LEVEL | KEY ACTIONS | STAKEHOLDERS |
|---|---|---|
| Foundational Prevention | Systematically monitor exposures and health outcomes; apply the precautionary principle; strengthen surveillance in high‑risk sectors | National governments, work environment, public health and environment agencies, research institutions, industry |
| Sustainable Production and Regulation | Protect workers by promoting cleaner mining, smelting, and recycling technologies; harmonizing health‑based standards; formalizing informal workers; strengthening enforcement | Governments, industry, labor organizations, NGOs |
| Equitable Community Protection | Protect communities by expanding community engagement; ensuring social protection for vulnerable groups; investing in surveillance technologies and early‑warning systems | Local authorities, community groups, Indigenous organizations |
| Long‑term Governance and Global Cooperation | Adopt due‑diligence laws; integrate toxic‑metal monitoring into climate finance; establish reference guidelines; pursue multilateral agreements | International bodies, regional blocs, national governments |
| ADME | (Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) |
| As | Arsenic |
| ASGM | Artisanal and small‑scale gold mining |
| ASM | Artisanal and small‑scale mining |
| ASQ‑3 | Ages and stages questionnaire |
| BLL | Blood lead level |
| Cd | Cadmium |
| CDC | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |
| Co | Cobalt |
| Cr VI | Hexavalent chromium |
| Cr | Chromium |
| CR | Corporate responsibility |
| CSDDD | Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive |
| CVD | Cardiovascular disease |
| DBS | Dried blood spot |
| EHIA | Environmental and health impact assessment |
| EV | Electric vehicle |
| Ge | Germanium |
| GGT | Gamma‑glutamyl transferase |
| Hb | Hemoglobin |
| Hg | Mercury |
| HIC | High‑income country |
| IIEF | International Index of Erectile Function |
| In | Indium |
| IQ | Intelligence quotient |
| LDH | Lactate dehydrogenase |
| Li | Lithium |
| LiB | Lithium‑ion battery |
| LMIC | Low‑ and middle‑income country |
| NGO | Non‑governmental organization |
| Ni | Nickel |
| Pb | Lead |
| PPE | Personal protective equipment |
| qDBS | Quantitative dried blood spot |
| REE | Rare earth elements |
| SDG | Sustainable development goal |
| U | Uranium |
| ULAB | Used lead‑acid battery |
| UN | United Nations |
| VAMS | Volumetric absorptive microsampling |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| XRF | X‑ray fluorescence |
| mg/kg | Milligram per kilogram |
| µg/L | Microgram per liter |
| µg/dL | Microgram per deciliter |
| µg/g | creatinine microgram per gram creatinine |
| µL | Microliter |
| mmol/L | Millimole per liter |
| ng/dL | Nanogram per deciliter |