References
- Schraufnagel DE, Balmes JR, Cowl CT, et al. Air pollution and noncommunicable diseases: A review by the Forum of International Respiratory Societies’ Environmental Committee, Part 2: Air pollution and organ systems. Chest. 2019;155(2):417–426.
- World Health Organization. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. Published December 19, 2022. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health . - World Health Organization. Household air pollution. Published December 16, 2025. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health . - GBD 2021 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global burden and strength of evidence for 88 risk factors in 204 countries and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 2024;403(10440):2162–2203.
- McDuffie E, Martin R, Yin H, Brauer M. Global burden of disease from major air pollution sources (GBD MAPS): A global approach. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2021;2021(210):1–45.
- World Health Organization. Global database of household air pollution measurements. Published 2018.
https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/air-pollution/hap-measurement-db . - Li C, van Donkelaar A, Hammer MS, et al. Reversal of trends in global fine particulate matter air pollution. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):5349. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41086-z.
- World Health Organization. WHO ambient air quality database. Updated January 31, 2024. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/air-pollution/who-air-quality-database . - United Nations. Population. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/population . - World Health Organization. Ageing and health. Published October 1, 2025. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health . - World Health Organization. Climate change. Published October 12, 2023. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health . - GBD 2021 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators. Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability‑adjusted life‑years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 2024;403(10440):2133–2161.
- GBD 2021 Causes of Death Collaborators. Global burden of 288 causes of death and life expectancy decomposition in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet. 2024;403(10440):2100–2132.
- Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Global burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors study (GBD) protocol. Updated June 4, 2024. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.healthdata.org/research-analysis/about-gbd/protocol . - Brauer Michael. State of global air 2024: Special report. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Published June 19, 2024.
https://www.healthdata.org/research-analysis/library/state-global-air-2024 . - Mansournia MA, Altman DG. Population attributable fraction. BMJ. 2018;360:k757. doi:10.1136/bmj.k757.
- Sun P, Yu C, Yin L, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of female cancers in women of child‑bearing age, 1990–2021: Analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. eClinicalMedicine. 2024;74:102713.
- World Health Organization. Global health estimates: Life expectancy and leading causes of death and disability. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates . - Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. Air pollution accounted for 8.1 million deaths globally in 2021, becoming the second leading risk factor for death, including for children under 5 years. Published June 19, 2024. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.healthdata.org/news-events/newsroom/news-releases/air-pollution-accounted-81-million-deaths-globally-2021-becoming . - United Nations Development Programme. Sustainable development goals: Affordable and clean energy. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals/affordable-and-clean-energy . - World Health Organization. Billions of people still breathe unhealthy air: New WHO data. Published April 4, 2022. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news/item/04-04-2022-billions-of-people-still-breathe-unhealthy-air-new-who-data . - Li G, Fang C, Wang S, Sun S. The effect of economic growth, urbanization, and industrialization on fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations in China. Environ Sci Technol. 2016;50(21):11452–11459.
- World Health Organization. Sustainable development goals & air pollution. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/air-quality-energy-and-health/policy-progress/sustainable-development-goals-air-pollution . - World Health Organization. Launch of WHO’s household energy policy repository. Published April 19, 2022. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/launch-of-who-s-household-energy-policy-repository . - United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Air pollution and economic development. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://unece.org/air-pollution-and-economic-development . - Cromar KR, Duncan BN, Bartonova A, et al. Air pollution monitoring for health research and patient care. An official American Thoracic Society workshop report. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2019;16(10):1207–1214.
- Ramírez AS, Ramondt S, Van Bogart K, Perez‑Zuniga R. Public awareness of air pollution and health threats: Challenges and opportunities for communication strategies to improve environmental health literacy. J Health Commun. 2019;24(1):75–83.
- Climate and Clean Air Coalition. Central African Republic—national planning on short‑lived climate pollutants. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.ccacoalition.org/projects/central-african-republic-national-planning-short-lived-climate-pollutants . - Interactive Country Fiches. Democratic‑Republic‑Congo: Pollution. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://dicf.unepgrid.ch/democratic-republic-congo/pollution . - Allen L, Williams J, Townsend N, et al. Socioeconomic status and non‑communicable disease behavioural risk factors in low‑income and lower‑middle‑income countries: A systematic review. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(3):e277–e289.
- Rentschler J, Leonova N. Global air pollution exposure and poverty. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):4432.
- United Nations Environment Programme. Pollution action note‑data you need to know. Published September 7, 2021. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.unep.org/interactives/air-pollution-note/ . - World Bank Group. Greater Cairo air pollution management and climate change project. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P172548 . - International Trade Administration. Vietnam‑Country commercial guide: Environmental technology. Published January 30, 2024. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/vietnam-environmental-technology . - Kruk ME, Gage AD, Arsenault C, et al. High‑quality health systems in the Sustainable Development Goals era: Time for a revolution. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6(11):e1196–e1252.
- Wei Y, Feng Y, Danesh Yazdi M, et al. Exposure‑response associations between chronic exposure to fine particulate matter and risks of hospital admission for major cardiovascular diseases: Population based cohort study. BMJ. 2024;384:e076939.
- Chen S, Liu D, Huang L, et al. Global associations between long‑term exposure to PM2.5 constituents and health: A systematic review and meta‑analysis of cohort studies. J Hazard Mater. 2024;474:134715.
- Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Pope
3rd CA, et al. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;121(21):2331–2378. - Zhou H, Liang X, Zhang X, et al. Associations of long‐term exposure to fine particulate constituents with cardiovascular diseases and underlying metabolic mediations: A prospective population‐based cohort in Southwest China. J Am Heart Assoc. 2024;13(10):e033455.
- Jiang Y, Zhu X, Shen Y, et al. Mechanistic insights into cardiovascular effects of ultrafine particle exposure: A longitudinal panel study. Environ Int. 2024;187:108714.
- Bekkar B, Pacheco S, Basu R, DeNicola N. Association of air pollution and heat exposure with preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth in the US: A systematic review. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(6):e208243.
- Zhou W, Tian D, He J, et al. Exposure scenario: Another important factor determining the toxic effects of PM2.5 and possible mechanisms involved. Environ Pollut. 2017;226:412–425.
- Fussell JC, Jauniaux E, Smith RB, Burton GJ. Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: A review of underlying mechanisms. BJOG. 2024;131(5):538–550.
- Lin LZ, Chen JH, Yu YJ, Dong GH. Ambient air pollution and infant health: A narrative review. EBioMedicine. 2023;93:104609.
- Muttoo S, Jeena PM, Röösli M, et al. Effect of short‑term exposure to ambient nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter on repeated lung function measures in infancy: A South African birth cohort. Environ Res. 2022;213:113645.
- Zhang Y, Hu Y, Talarico R, et al. Prenatal exposure to ambient air pollution and cerebral palsy. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(7):e2420717.
- Raghuveer G, White DA, Hayman LL, et al. Cardiovascular consequences of childhood secondhand tobacco smoke exposure: Prevailing evidence, burden, and racial and socioeconomic disparities: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;134(16):e336–e359.
- Kezhong Z. Environmental PM2.5‑triggered stress responses in digestive diseases. eGastroenterology. 2024;2(2):e100063.
- Xing Z, Yang T, Shi S, et al. Combined effect of ozone and household air pollution on COPD in people aged less than 50 years old. Thorax. 2023;79(1):35–42.
- World Health Organization. The top 10 causes of death. Published August 7, 2024. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death . - Zhu W, Al‑Kindi SG, Rajagopalan S, Rao X. Air pollution in cardio‑oncology and unraveling the environmental nexus: JACC: CardioOncology state‑of‑the‑art review. JACC CardioOncol. 2024;6(3):347–362.
- Wang JT, Hu W, Xue Z, et al. Mapping multi‑omics characteristics related to short‑term PM2.5 trajectory and their impact on type 2 diabetes in middle‑aged and elderly adults in Southern China. J Hazard Mater. 2024;468:133784.
- World Health Organization. Noncommunicable diseases. Accessed
January 25, 2026 .https://www.who.int/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases . - Shen Y, Jiang L, Xie X, et al. Long‑term exposure to fine particulate matter and fasting blood glucose and diabetes in 20 million Chinese women of reproductive age. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(8):1400–1407.
- Clougherty JE. A growing role for gender analysis in air pollution epidemiology. Environ Health Perspect. 2010;118(2):167–176.
- Peters A. Ambient air pollution and Alzheimer’s disease: The role of the composition of fine particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023;120(3):e2220028120.
- Duan JW, Li YL, Li SX, et al. Association of long‑term ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and incident CKD: A prospective cohort study in China. Am J Kidney Dis. 2022;80(5):638–647.e1.