Table 1
Prevalence of stunting across various sociodemographic characteristics of the study population (N = 4,581).
| FREQUENCY (%) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| NO (N = 2,792) | YES (N = 1,789) | P VALUE | |
| Current maternal age group, years | 0.5441 | ||
| ≤19 | 88 (3.3) | 49 (2.7) | |
| 20–30 | 1,424 (51.4) | 894 (51.3) | |
| 30–40 | 999 (35.5) | 645 (34.9) | |
| ≥40 | 281 (9.8) | 201 (11.1) | |
| Maternal age at first birth, years | 0.0351* | ||
| ≤19 | 819 (29.6) | 605 (33.0) | |
| ≥20 | 1,973 (70.4) | 1,184 (67.0) | |
| Maternal height | 0.0391* | ||
| <145 cm | 256 (9.4) | 221 (12.5) | |
| ≥145 cm | 2,510 (89.7) | 1,559 (87.0) | |
| Missing | 26 (0.9) | 9 (0.5) | |
| Body mass index | 0.9041 | ||
| Underweight | 590 (20.5) | 363 (19.8) | |
| Normal weight | 1,825 (65.6) | 1,194 (66.6) | |
| Pre-obesity | 293 (11.0) | 188 (11.0) | |
| Obesity | 56 (1.9) | 31 (2.0) | |
| Missing | 28 (1.0) | 13 (0.7) | |
| Education level | <0.0011*** | ||
| No education | 632 (22.4) | 485 (26.7) | |
| Less than secondary | 1,133 (40.8) | 772 (42.9) | |
| Secondary or above | 1,027 (36.9) | 532 (30.4) | |
| Wealth index | 0.0031** | ||
| Poorest | 486 (18.1) | 373 (20.4) | |
| Poor | 543 (19.1) | 382 (21.3) | |
| Average | 559 (19.2) | 380 (20.8) | |
| Rich | 635 (20.7) | 397 (21.4) | |
| Richest | 569 (23.0) | 257 (16.2) | |
| Area of residence | 0.0751 | ||
| Urban | 910 (30.8) | 492 (26.6) | |
| Rural | 1,882 (69.2) | 1,297 (73.4) | |
| Region | <0.0011*** | ||
| Aileu | 206 (3.9) | 143 (3.9) | |
| Ainaro | 154 (3.9) | 158 (5.9) | |
| Baucau | 187 (9.5) | 137 (12.0) | |
| Bobonaro | 207 (7.9) | 173 (10.6) | |
| Covalima | 172 (5.9) | 135 (6.7) | |
| Dili | 326 (22.7) | 184 (21.5) | |
| Ermera | 239 (10.6) | 85 (5.4) | |
| Lautem | 209 (5.8) | 104 (4.3) | |
| Liquica | 239 (7.0) | 151 (6.9) | |
| Manatuto | 219 (4.7) | 131 (4.6) | |
| Manufahi | 254 (5.7) | 138 (4.8) | |
| Oecussi | 196 (6.9) | 115 (6.5) | |
| Viqueque | 184(5.7) | 135 (6.9) | |
| Number of ANC visits | 0.1261 | ||
| <4 visits | 645 (22.4) | 433 (23.0) | |
| ≥4 visits | 2,144 (77.5) | 1,349 (77.0) | |
| Missing | 3 (<0.001) | 7 (0.4) | |
| Received counseling on breastfeeding at ANC visits | 0.5421 | ||
| No | 784 (29.6) | 534 (30.7) | |
| Yes | 2,006 (70.4) | 1,255 (69.3) | |
| Missing | 2 (<0.001) | 0 (0.00) | |
| Type of delivery | 0.3091 | ||
| Normal | 2,675 (95.9) | 1,718 (94.9) | |
| Cesarean section | 116 (4.0) | 69 (4.9) | |
| Missing | 1 (<0.001) | 2 (0.2) | |
| Place of delivery | 0.0681 | ||
| Home-based delivery | 1342 (48.1) | 938 (51.6) | |
| Facility-based delivery | 1450 (51.9) | 851 (48.4) | |
| Missing | 20 (0.7) | 16 (0.9) | |
| PNC check of baby within two months of life | 0.8781 | ||
| No | 2,160 (77.8) | 1,389 (78.3) | |
| Yes | 598 (21.0) | 379 (20.4) | |
| Missing | 34 (1.2) | 21 (1.3) | |
| Early initiation of breastfeeding | 0.3031 | ||
| Within one hour of birth | 2,135 (76.4) | 1,337 (74.1) | |
| After one hour of birth | 575 (20.7) | 396 (22.9) | |
| Missing | 82 (2.9) | 56 (3.1) | |
| Infant feeding practice within first six months of life | 0.2261 | ||
| Exclusive breastfeeding | 14 (0.6) | 10 (0.4) | |
| Predominant feeding | 1,574 (55.1) | 1,033 (57.9) | |
| Partially breastfeeding | 1,120 (41.2) | 682 (37.9) | |
| Missing | 84 (3.1) | 64 (3.7) | |
| Currently breastfeeding | <0.0011*** | ||
| No | 1,293 (47.3) | 1,036 (59.9) | |
| Yes | 1,499 (52.7) | 753 (40.1) | |
| Having positive maternal and child bonding | 0.1731 | ||
| Negative | 1,376 (49.6) | 955 (53.3) | |
| Positive | 1,408 (50.2) | 828 (46.4) | |
| Missing | 8 (2.7) | 6 (2.9) | |
| Child’s age in months, mean (SD) | 20.49 (16.5) | 25.84 (14.9) | <0.0012*** |
| Child’s sex | <0.0011*** | ||
| Male | 1,396 (49.0) | 986 (55.0) | |
| Female | 1,396 (51.0) | 803 (45.1) | |
| Child’s size at birth | 0.0611 | ||
| Very large | 278 (9.9) | 136 (7.6) | |
| Larger than average | 252 (8.5) | 163 (8.8) | |
| Average | 1,628 (57.0) | 1,031 (56.0) | |
| Smaller than average | 53 (2.0) | 40 (3.0) | |
| Very small | 119 (4.2) | 97 (5.6) | |
| Missing | 462 (18.4) | 322 (19.2) | |
| Birth order | 0.0641 | ||
| First | 616 (22.4) | 324 (18.9) | |
| Second | 549 (19.7) | 356 (21.1) | |
| Third | 450 (16.1) | 314 (17.7) | |
| Fourth or more | 1,177 (41.9) | 795 (42.3) | |
[i] N = number of participants, ANC = antenatal care, PNC = postnatal care, SD = standard deviation.
1Chi-square test, 2Student t-test.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 2
Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis (N = 3,553).
| COR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|
| Current maternal age group, years | ||
| ≤19 | 1 | 1 |
| 20–30 | 1.20 (0.80–1.80) | 1.05 (0.66–1.67) |
| 30–40 | 1.18 (0.78–1.77) | 0.84 (0.47–1.49) |
| ≥40 | 1.35 (0.87–2.09) | 0.76 (0.40–1.43) |
| Maternal age at first birth, years | ||
| ≤19 | 1 | 1 |
| ≥20 | 0.85 (0.74–0.99) * | 0.92 (0.75–1.11) |
| Maternal height | ||
| <145 cm | 1 | 1 |
| ≥145 cm | 0.73 (0.59–0.90) ** | 0.62 (0.48–0.80) *** |
| Body mass index | ||
| Underweight | 1 | 1 |
| Normal weight | 1.06 (0.87–1.29) | 1.12 (0.89–1.41) |
| Pre-obesity | 1.05 (0.78–1.41) | 0.96 (0.68–1.36) |
| Obesity | 1.09 (0.64–1.85) | 1.03 (0.55–1.95) |
| Education level | ||
| No education | 1 | 1 |
| Less than secondary | 0.88 (0.74–1.05) | 0.85 (0.69–1.05) |
| Secondary or above | 0.69 (0.56–0.85) ** | 0.81 (0.60–1.08) |
| Wealth index | ||
| Richest | 1 | 1 |
| Poorest | 1.60 (1.19–2.15) ** | 1.61 (1.13–2.28) ** |
| Poor | 1.59 (1.20–2.10) ** | 1.65 (1.04–2.31) ** |
| Average | 1.54 (1.12–2.13) ** | 1.41 (0.99–2.00) |
| Rich | 1.47 (1.16–1.86) ** | 1.31 (1.01–1.71) * |
| Area of residence | ||
| Urban | 1 | 1 |
| Rural | 1.23 (0.98–1.54) | 1.13 (0.90–1.42) |
| Region | ||
| Dili | 1 | 1 |
| Aileu | 1.06 (0.73–1.54) | 0.82 (0.57–1.19) |
| Ainaro | 1.59 (1.10–2.29) * | 1.17 (0.79–1.75) |
| Baucau | 1.33 (0.94–1.88) | 1.08 (0.77–1.51) |
| Bobonaro | 1.41 (1.00–1.98) | 0.90 (0.65–1.25) |
| Covalima | 1.18 (0.83–1.70) | 0.74 (0.47–1.16) |
| Ermera | 0.54 (0.35–0.84) ** | 0.32 (0.20–0.52) *** |
| Lautem | 0.78 (0.56–1.10) | 0.63 (0.44–0.91) * |
| Liquica | 1.04 (0.73–1.49) | 0.74 (0.51–1.06) |
| Manatuto | 1.03 (0.75–1.43) | 0.94 (0.64–1.37) |
| Manufahi | 0.89 (0.63–1.26) | 0.55 (0.38–0.78) ** |
| Oecussi | 1.00 (0.68–1.47) | 0.58 (0.39–0.86) ** |
| Viqueque | 1.28 (0.88–1.87) | 0.82 (0.55–1.21) |
| Number of ANC visits | ||
| <4 visits | 1 | 1 |
| ≥4 visits | 0.97 (0.81–1.16) | 0.97 (0.77–1.22) |
| Received counseling on breastfeeding at ANC visits | ||
| No | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 0.95 (0.80–1.13) | 0.99 (0.80–1.23) |
| Place of delivery | ||
| Home-based delivery | 1 | 1 |
| Facility-based delivery | 0.87 (0.74–1.01) | 0.94 (0.74–1.18) |
| PNC check of baby within two months of life | ||
| No | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 0.96 (0.81–1.15) | 0.80 (0.65–0.99) * |
| Time from birth to first breastfeeding | ||
| Within one hour of birth | 1 | 1 |
| After one hour of birth | 1.14 (0.96–1.35) | 1.16 (0.95–1.41) |
| Exclusive breastfeeding | ||
| No | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 0.73 (0.29–1.79) | 0.61 (0.23–1.65) |
| Currently breastfeeding | ||
| No | 1 | 1 |
| Yes | 0.60 (0.52–0.70) *** | 0.77 (0.62–0.96) * |
| Having positive maternal and child bonding | ||
| Negative | 1 | 1 |
| Positive | 0.86 (0.72–1.03) | 0.95 (0.77–1.18) |
| Child’s age in months | 1.02 (1.02–1.03) *** | 1.02 (1.01–1.03) *** |
| Child’s sex | ||
| Male | 1 | 1 |
| Female | 0.79 (0.69–0.90) *** | 0.75 (0.64–0.88) *** |
| Child’s size at birth | ||
| Very large | 1 | 1 |
| Larger than average | 1.36 (1.00–1.85) | 1.37 (0.95–1.98) |
| Average | 1.28 (0.98–1.68) | 1.31 (0.96–1.78) |
| Smaller than average | 1.89 (1.12–3.21) * | 1.89 (1.08–3.34) * |
| Very small | 1.73 (1.20–2.50) ** | 1.45 (0.97–2.17) |
| Birth order | ||
| First | 1 | 1 |
| Second | 1.27 (1.02–1.58) * | 1.28 (0.96–1.66) |
| Third | 1.30 (1.06–1.60) * | 1.29 (1.00–1.66) |
| Fourth or more | 1.20 (1.00–1.43) * | 1.22 (0.90–1.66) |
[i] N = number of participants, cOR = crude odds ratio, aOR = adjusted odds ratio, CI = confidence interval, ANC = antenatal care, PNC = postnatal care.
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
| ANC | Antenatal care |
| CI | Confidence interval |
| DHS | Demographic and Health Survey |
| IPC | Integrated food security phase classification |
| PNC | Postnatal care |
| SD | Standard deviation |
| UNFPA | United Nations Population Fund |
| UNICEF | United Nations Children’s Fund |
| USAID | United States Agency for International Development |
| WHO | World Health Organization |
| aOR | Adjusted odds ratio |
| cOR | Crude odds ratio |