Table 1
Definitions of Schwartz’s Universal Human Values (Schwartz 1992).
| VALUE TYPE | DEFINITION |
|---|---|
| Universalism | Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature |
| Benevolence | Preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact |
| Tradition | Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide |
| Conformity | Restraint of actions, inclinations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social norms |
| Security | Safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships and of self |
| Power | Social status and prestige; control or dominance over people and resources |
| Achievement | Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards |
| Hedonism | Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself |
| Stimulation | Excitement, novelty and challenge in life |
| Self‑Direction | Independent thought and action‑choosing, creating and exploring |
Figure 1
Internet Use and News Consumption Across ESS Rounds 8–11 (Stability in Median with High Individual Variation).
Figure 2
Media Use & Immigration Attitudes by Country.
(Slope label: β ± 1.96 SE (*, **, *** = p < .05/.01/.001).
Table 2
Multilevel Model Regression Results.
| VARIABLE | MODEL 1 | MODEL 21 | MODEL 3 | MODEL 42 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ESTIMATE | SE | ESTIMATE | SE | ESTIMATE | SE | ESTIMATE | SE | |
| Fixed Effect | ||||||||
| Intercept | 0.332***3 | 0.034 | 0.332*** | 0.034 | 0.235*** | 0.089 | 0.212*** | 0.080 |
| Sociodemographic Variables | ||||||||
| Age | −0.022*** | 0.001 | −0.023*** | 0.001 | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.006 |
| Gender | −0.004 | 0.005 | −0.000 | 0.005 | 0.007 | 0.017 | 0.007 | 0.017 |
| Education | 0.108*** | 0.002 | 0.106*** | 0.002 | 0.103*** | 0.007 | 0.103*** | 0.007 |
| Income | −0.145*** | 0.003 | −0.143*** | 0.003 | −0.150*** | 0.013 | −0.149*** | 0.013 |
| Political Orientation | −0.077*** | 0.001 | −0.077*** | 0.001 | −0.081*** | 0.004 | −0.081*** | 0.004 |
| Religiosity | 0.011*** | 0.001 | 0.011*** | 0.001 | 0.002*** | 0.003 | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Values | ||||||||
| Self‑Transcendence | 0.183*** | 0.004 | 0.183*** | 0.004 | 0.214*** | 0.016 | 0.214*** | 0.016 |
| Conservation | −0.195*** | 0.005 | −0.195*** | 0.005 | −0.217*** | 0.015 | −0.216*** | 0.015 |
| Media Consumption | ||||||||
| Internet Consumption | 0.014*** | 0.002 | 0.014*** | 0.002 | 0.025* | 0.011 | 0.028*** | 0.008 |
| News Consumption | 0.057*** | 0.002 | 0.057*** | 0.002 | 0.051*** | 0.012 | 0.053*** | 0.010 |
| European Manager | — | — | −0.079*** | 0.009 | — | — | — | — |
| Year Effects | ||||||||
| Y.2018 | — | — | — | — | 0.049*** | 0.023 | — | — |
| Y.2020 | — | — | — | — | 0.179*** | 0.022 | — | — |
| Y.2023 | — | — | — | — | 0.059*** | 0.023 | — | — |
| Country Effect | ||||||||
| Switzerland | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.189*** | 0.049 |
| Germany | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.002 | 0.043 |
| Spain | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.236*** | 0.049 |
| Finland | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.522*** | 0.054 |
| France | — | — | — | — | — | — | −0.091*** | 0.048 |
| Great Britain | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.197*** | 0.045 |
| Hungary | — | — | — | — | — | — | −0.478*** | 0.057 |
| Ireland | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.384*** | 0.046 |
| Iceland | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.546*** | 0.050 |
| Italy | — | — | — | — | — | — | −0.308*** | 0.053 |
| Lithuania | — | — | — | — | — | — | −0.085* | 0.049 |
| Netherlands | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.023** | 0.047 |
| Norway | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.167*** | 0.048 |
| Poland | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.289*** | 0.044 |
| Portugal | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.251*** | 0.057 |
| Sweden | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.134*** | 0.049 |
| Slovenia | — | — | — | — | — | — | −0.239*** | 0.054 |
| Random Effects | ||||||||
| Level 1: Residual | 0.596 | 0.595 | 0.551 | 0.552 | ||||
| Level 2: Country‑Year | 0.065 | 0.014 | 0.065 | 0.014 | — | — | — | — |
| Level 3: Country Intercept | — | — | — | — | 0.072 | 0.034 | — | — |
| Level 3: Country × Internet Consumption Covariance | — | — | — | — | 0.004 | 0.005 | — | — |
| Level 3: Internet Consumption Slope Variance | — | — | — | — | 0.0011 | 0.001 | — | — |
| Level 3: Country × News Consumption Covariance | — | — | — | — | 0.004 | 0.005 | — | — |
| Level 3: Internet × News Consumption Covariance | — | — | — | — | 0.001 | 0.001 | — | — |
| Level 3: News Consumption Slope Variance | — | — | — | — | 0.001 | 0.001 | — | — |
| Level 3: Year | — | — | — | — | — | — | 0.006** | 0.007 |
| Model Fit (Deviance) | 273612.92 | 273537.03 | 20938.75 | 20936.51 | ||||
[i] 1Models 1 and 2 are estimated on the full sample (N = 117,752; 108,489 nonmanagers and 9,263 managers).
[ii] 2Models 3 and 4 are restricted to the manager subsample only (N = 9,263).
[iii] Note:*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001. Stars indicate statistical significance of fixed effects. No stars for random effects unless otherwise noted.
Figure 3
Trends Analysis in Immigration Attitudes by Values and Media Use Among European Managers and Employees.
Figure 4
Interaction Effects of the Internet and News Consumption on Immigration Attitudes by Managerial Status in Europe.
Figure 5
Country‑Level Analysis of Immigration Attitudes by Values and Media Use Among European Managers and Workers.