Table 1
Migrant characteristics by gender and pre-migration contacts.
| MALE | FEMALE | DIFF IN MEANS | TOTAL | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Outcomes | ||||
| Mean years to the first job | 3.43 | 4.24 | *** | 3.90 |
| Entered a job within 5 years of arrival | 0.68 | 0.61 | ** | 0.64 |
| Entered a job within 10 years of arrival | 0.74 | 0.69 | * | 0.71 |
| Contacts at arrival | ||||
| Family | 0.45 | 0.55 | *** | 0.51 |
| Friends | 0.18 | 0.15 | * | 0.16 |
| Both family and friends | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.05 | |
| No contacts | 0.31 | 0.26 | ** | 0.28 |
| Demographic characteristics | ||||
| Mean age at arrival | 28.66 | 28.85 | 28.77 | |
| Region of origin | ||||
| Europe, Central Asia and North America | 0.36 | 0.41 | * | 0.39 |
| Middle East and North Africa | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.15 | |
| South and East Asia and Pacific | 0.11 | 0.17 | *** | 0.15 |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 0.19 | 0.11 | *** | 0.15 |
| Latin America | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 | |
| Residence permit | ||||
| Family reunification | 0.43 | 0.67 | *** | 0.57 |
| Refugee | 0.57 | 0.33 | *** | 0.43 |
| Family situation | ||||
| Married before arrival | 0.23 | 0.26 | + | 0.25 |
| Parent before arrival | 0.09 | 0.11 | * | 0.10 |
| Married within 10 years of arrival | 0.35 | 0.51 | *** | 0.45 |
| Parent within 10 years of arrival | 0.14 | 0.23 | *** | 0.19 |
| Educational attainment | ||||
| Low education at arrival | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.21 | |
| Intermediate education at arrival | 0.30 | 0.27 | + | 0.28 |
| High education at arrival | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.32 | |
| Missing education at arrival | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.19 | |
| Low education within 10 years of arrival | 0.22 | 0.21 | 0.21 | |
| Intermediate education within 10 years of arrival | 0.31 | 0.27+ | + | 0.29 |
| High education within 10 years of arrival | 0.34 | 0.37 | 0.35 | |
| Missing education within 10 years of arrival | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.14 | |
| Observations | 821 | 1,104 | 1,925 |
[i] Notes. Proportion within each group reported. +p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed).
Figure 1
Survival plots on years to first job by gender and pre-migration contacts. Data from the LNU-UFB 2010.
Table 2
Hazard ratios from piecewise constant exponential models on years to first job in Sweden.
| MALE | FEMALE | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | (2) | (1) | (2) | |||||
| Pre-migration contacts (Ref. No contacts) | ||||||||
| Family | 1.26* | (0.13) | 1.20+ | (0.12) | 0.98 | (0.09) | 0.98 | (0.09) |
| Friends | 1.26* | (0.15) | 1.26* | (0.15) | 0.97 | (0.12) | 1.01 | (0.12) |
| Both Family and Friends | 1.11 | (0.22) | 1.14 | (0.21) | 1.11 | (0.19) | 1.14 | (0.20) |
| Demographic characteristics | ||||||||
| Age at arrival | 1.10*** | (0.03) | 1.08** | (0.03) | 1.14*** | (0.03) | 1.11*** | (0.03) |
| Age at arrival squared | 0.99*** | (0.01) | 0.99*** | (0.01) | 0.99*** | (0.01) | 0.99*** | (0.01) |
| Region of origin (Ref. Europe, Central Asia and North America) | ||||||||
| Middle East and North Africa | 0.85 | (0.11) | 0.86 | (0.11) | 0.63*** | (0.08) | 0.61*** | (0.07) |
| South and East Asia and Pacific | 1.19 | (0.16) | 1.21 | (0.16) | 0.86 | (0.09) | 0.87 | (0.09) |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 1.20+ | (0.12) | 1.27 | (0.13) | 0.64*** | (0.08) | 0.63*** | (0.08) |
| Latin America | 1.09 | (0.13) | 1.08 | (0.13) | 0.96 | (0.10) | 0.92 | (0.10) |
| Residence permit (Ref. Family reunification) | ||||||||
| Refugee | 0.79** | (0.07) | 0.78** | (0.07) | 0.88 | (0.08) | 0.92 | (0.08) |
| Family situation | ||||||||
| Married | 1.50*** | (0.15) | 1.49*** | (0.12) | ||||
| Parent | 1.22 | (0.18) | 0.95 | (0.11) | ||||
| Educational attainment (Ref. Low education) | ||||||||
| Intermediate education | 0.91 | (0.10) | 1.36** | (0.15) | ||||
| High education | 0.83 | (0.10) | 1.44*** | (0.16) | ||||
| Missing education | 0.72** | (0.09) | 1.16 | (0.14) | ||||
| Year of arrival (quintiles) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||
| Person years | 3,637 | 3,637 | 5,789 | 5,789 | ||||
| Observations | 821 | 821 | 1,104 | 1,104 | ||||
| AIC | 2,651 | 2,628 | 3,487 | 3,456 | ||||
| BIC | 2,769 | 2,777 | 3,614 | 3,616 | ||||
[i] Notes. Clustered standard errors at the individual level in parentheses. +p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed).
Table 3
Hazard ratios from piecewise constant exponential models on years to first job in Sweden from stratified analyses by educational attainment at arrival and region of origin.
| MISSING OR LOW EDUCATION | INTERMEDIATE OR HIGH EDUCATION | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a. Male | |||||
| Pre-migration contacts | |||||
| (Ref. No contacts) | |||||
| Contacts | 1.51** | 1.14 | |||
| Person years | 1,458 | 2,179 | |||
| Observations | 324 | 497 | |||
| b. Female | |||||
| Pre-migration contacts | |||||
| (Ref. No contacts) | |||||
| Contacts | 0.93 | 1.04 | |||
| Person years | 2,671 | 3,118 | |||
| Observations | 447 | 657 | |||
| EUROPE, CENTRAL ASIA AND NORTH AMERICA | MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA | SOUTH AND EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC | SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA | LATIN AMERICA | |
| a. Male | |||||
| Pre-migration contacts | |||||
| (Ref. No contacts) | |||||
| Contacts | 1.13 | 0.90 | 1.30 | 1.38+ | 1.57+ |
| Person years | 1,298 | 702 | 375 | 678 | 584 |
| Observations | 295 | 132 | 92 | 159 | 143 |
| b. Female | |||||
| Pre-migration contacts | |||||
| (Ref. No contacts) | |||||
| Contacts | 1.10 | 0.61+ | 1.02 | 1.67+ | 0.72+ |
| Person years | 2,090 | 1,061 | 1,008 | 786 | 844 |
| Observations | 452 | 151 | 193 | 125 | 183 |
[i] Notes. Models control for age at immigration, age at immigration squared, residence permit and year of arrival in quintiles. The full set of hazard ratios and clustered standard errors at the individual level are presented in Tables A2 and A3 in the Appendix. +p < 0.1; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 (two-tailed).