Fig. 1.
Study design and participant enrollment flowchart.
Table I
General clinical characteristics of the GDM and Normal groups.
| Characteristics | GDM group (n = 48) | Normal group(n = 56) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| General information | |||
| Age (years) | 30.21 (3.38) | 29.46 (4.27) | 0.386 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 23.76 (3.07) | 21.40 (2.81) | <0.001 |
| Gestational weight gain (kg) | 12.93 (5.80) | 14.52 (4.38) | 0.027 |
| Educational level | 0.525 | ||
| Lower secondary or below | 13 (27.08%) | 10 (17.86%) | |
| Upper secondary | 18 (38.51%) | 19 (33.92%) | |
| Post-secondary non-tertiary (college) | 4 (8.33%) | 10 (17.86%) | |
| University degree | 13 (27.08%) | 17 (30.36%) | |
| Dietary preference | 0.368 | ||
| Light | 14 (29.17%) | 23 (41.07%) | |
| Moderate | 18 (37.50%) | 20 (35.71%) | |
| Heavy | 16 (33.33%) | 13 (23.21%) | |
| Pharmacological intervention | 0.001 | ||
| Yes | 8 (16.67%) | 0 | |
| No | 40 (83.33%) | 56 (100.00%) | |
| Mode of delivery | 0.018 | ||
| Vaginal delivery | 6 (12.50%) | 18 (32.14%) | |
| Cesarean section | 42 (87.50%) | 38 (67.86%) | |
| Gestational hematological parameters | |||
| Fasting blood glucose (mmol/l) | 4.99 (0.65) | 4.48 (0.28) | <0.001 |
| Postprandial glucose (mmol/l) | 9.37 (1.43) | 7.49 (0.71) | <0.001 |
| Glycated hemoglobin (%) | 5.84 (0.40) | 5.24 (0.24) | <0.001 |
| Total cholesterol (mmol/l) | 6.48 (1.16) | 6.55 (1.30) | 0.776 |
| Triglycerides (mmol/l) | 4.52 (2.39) | 3.43 (1.23) | 0.024 |
| Total bilirubin (μmol/l) | 9.56 (2.83) | 10.76 (4.59) | 0.082 |
| Total bile acids (μmol/l) | 2.51 (3.10) | 2.36 (1.36) | 0.214 |
| Neonatal outcomes | |||
| Birth weight (g) | 3,413.13 (481.50) | 3,299.11 (326.38) | 0.216 |
| Apgar score | 10 (0) | 10 (0) | / |
| Neonatal hospitalization | 0.003 | ||
| Yes | 19 (39.58%) | 8 (14.29%) | |
| No | 29 (60.42%) | 48 (85.71%) | |
Fig. 2.
GDM-associated changes in placental microbiota. A-B) Placental α-diversity; C) Placental β-diversity; D) Differential bacterial genera in the placenta identified by LEfSe
Fig. 3.
GDM-associated changes in neonatal meconium microbiota. A–B) α-diversity of neonatal meconium; C) β-diversity of neonatal meconium, D) Differentiated bacterial genera in neonatal meconium identified by LEfSe
Fig. 4.
Analysis of the potential source contribution of placental microbiota to neonatal meconium microbiota based on community similarity.
Fig. 5.
Association of differential microbial genera in placenta and neonatal meconium with the risk of neonatal hospitalization.