Making Hybrid War Teachable and Learnable: Combining Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality in Military Education
References
- Almatrafi, O., Johri, A., & Lee, H. (2024). A systematic review of AI literacy conceptualization, constructs, and implementation and assessment efforts (2019–2023). Computers and Education Open, 6,
100173 . 10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100173 - Balint, J. T., Allbeck, J. M., & Bidarra, R. (2018). Understanding everything NPCs can do: Metrics for action similarity in non-player characters. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games, 1–10. 10.1145/3235765.3235776
- Bawden, D. (2001). Information and digital literacies: A review of concepts. Journal of Documentation, 57(2), 218–259. 10.1108/EUM0000000007083
- Bender, E. M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., & Shmitchell, S. (2021). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big? Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 610–623. 10.1145/3442188.3445922
- Bertelsen, O. (Ed.). (2021). Russian active measures: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics and Security.
- Bouwmeester, H. (2017).
Lo and behold: Let the truth be told – Russian deception warfare in Crimea and Ukraine and the return of “maskirovka” and “reflexive control theory.” In P. A. L. Ducheine & F. P. B. Osinga (Eds.), Netherlands annual review of military studies 2017: Winning without killing: The strategic and operational utility of non-kinetic capabilities in crises (pp. 125–153). T.M.C. Asser Press. 10.1007/978-94-6265-189-0_8 - Boyd, J., Barnett, S. W., Bodrova, E., Leong, D. J., & Gomby, D. (2005). Promoting children’s social and emotional development through preschool education. National Institute for Early Education Research.
https://nieer.org/sites/default/files/2023-08/report7.pdf - Brown, J. A. (1998). Media literacy perspectives. Journal of Communication, 48(1), 44–57. 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1998.tb02736.x
- Burgsteiner, H., Kandlhofer, M., & Steinbauer, G. (2016). IRobot: Teaching the basics of artificial intelligence in high schools. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 30(1). 10.1609/aaai.v30i1.9864
- Celik, I. (2023). Exploring the determinants of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy: Digital divide, computational thinking, cognitive absorption. Telematics and Informatics, 83,
102026 . 10.1016/j.tele.2023.102026 - Center for Strategic and International Studies. (2024). Significant cyber incidents.
https://www.csis.org/programs/strategic-technologies-program/significant-cyber-incidents - Chai, C. S., Wang, X., & Xu, C. (2020). An extended theory of planned behavior for the modelling of Chinese secondary school students’ intention to learn artificial intelligence. Mathematics, 8(11),
2089 . 10.3390/math8112089 - Chheang, V., Sharmin, S., Márquez-Hernández, R., Patel, M., Rajasekaran, D., & Caulfield, G. (2024). Towards anatomy education with generative AI-based virtual assistants in immersive virtual reality environments. 2024 IEEE International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality (AIxVR), 21–30. 10.1109/AIxVR59861.2024.00011
- Druga, S., Vu, S. T., Likhith, E., & Qiu, T. (2019). Inclusive AI literacy for kids around the world. Proceedings of FabLearn 2019, 104–111. 10.1145/3311890.3311904
- Eggen, K. A. (2024). Designing around NATO’s deterrence: Russia’s Nordic information confrontation strategy. Journal of Strategic Studies, 47(3), 410–434. 10.1080/01402390.2024.2332328
- Eisenberg, M. B. (2008). Information literacy: Essential skills for the information age. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 28(2), 39–47. 10.14429/djlit.28.2.166
- Galeotti, M. (2022). The weaponisation of everything: A field guide to the new way of war (1st ed.). Yale University Press. 10.12987/9780300265132
- Galeotti, M. (2023). Putin takes Crimea 2014: Grey-zone warfare opens the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Osprey Publishing.
- Garcia Estrada, J., Prasolova-Førland, E., Kjeksrud, S., Ricci, S., Villarroel, C., Hokstad, L. M., & Spante, M. (2024). Military education in extended reality (XR): Learning troublesome knowledge through immersive experiential application. The Visual Computer, 40, 7249–7278. 10.1007/s00371-024-03339-w
- Goldenziel, J. I. (2022). An alternative to zombieing: Lawfare between Russia and Ukraine and the future of international law (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 4141521). 10.2139/ssrn.4141521
- Grassini, S. (2023). Development and validation of the AI attitude scale (AIAS-4): A brief measure of general attitude toward artificial intelligence. Frontiers in Psychology, 14,
1191628 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1191628 - Grassini, S. (2024). A psychometric validation of the PAILQ-6: Perceived artificial intelligence literacy questionnaire. NordiCHI ‘24: Proceedings of the 13th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Article
24 , 1–10. 10.1145/3679318.3685359 - Hamilton, D., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E., & Wilson, C. (2021). Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: A systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(1), 1–32. 10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2
- Han, J., Yoo, H., Kim, Y., Myung, J., Kim, M., Lim, H., Kim, J., Lee, T. Y., Hong, H., Ahn, S.-Y., & Oh, A. (2023). RECIPE: How to integrate ChatGPT into EFL writing education.
https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.2305.11583 ; 10.1145/3573051.3596200 - Hoffman, B. G. (2017). Red teaming: How your business can conquer the competition by challenging everything (1st ed.). Crown Business.
- Hokstad, L. M., & Gundrosen, S. (2019).
‘… ‘Cause soon now, it will be real …’: Medical simulation as change space in interprofessional training . In J. A. Timmermans & R. Land (Eds.), Threshold concepts on the edge (pp. 159–173). Brill. 10.1163/9789004419971_011 - How, M.-L., & Hung, W. L. D. (2019). Educing AI-thinking in science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics (STEAM) education. Education Sciences, 9(3),
184 . 10.3390/educsci9030184 - Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink: A psychological study of foreign-policy decisions and fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin.
- Jensen, L., & Konradsen, F. (2018). A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Education and Information Technologies, 23(4), 1515–1529. 10.1007/s10639-017-9676-0
- Johnson, R. (2018). Hybrid War and Its Countermeasures: A Critique of the Literature. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 29(1), 141–163. 10.1080/09592318.2018.1404770
- Johnson, W. L., & Lester, J. C. (2016). Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents, twenty years later. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(1), 25–36. 10.1007/s40593-015-0065-9
- Kahneman, D. (2013). Thinking, fast and slow (1st pbk. ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
- Kandlhofer, M., Steinbauer, G., Hirschmugl-Gaisch, S., & Huber, P. (2016). Artificial intelligence and computer science in education: From kindergarten to university. 2016 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE), 1–9. 10.1109/FIE.2016.7757570
- Kasapoglu, C. (2015). Russia’s renewed military thinking: Non-linear warfare and reflexive control (Research Paper No. 121). NATO Defense College.
https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/195099/rp_121.pdf - Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (8th ed.). Routledge.
- Kshetri, N. (2023). The future of education: Generative artificial intelligence’s collaborative role with teachers. IT Professional, 25(6), 8–12. 10.1109/MITP.2023.3333070
- Libiseller, C. (2023). ‘Hybrid warfare’ as an academic fashion. Journal of Strategic Studies, 46(4), 858–880. 10.1080/01402390.2023.2177987
- Lingard, L. (2015). Joining a conversation: The problem/gap/hook heuristic. Perspectives on Medical Education, 4, 252–253. 10.1007/s40037-015-0211-y
- Long, D., & Magerko, B. (2020). What is AI literacy? Competencies and design considerations. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–16. 10.1145/3313831.3376727
- Lycett, M. G. (2020).
Digital literacy . In Encyclopedia of education and information technologies (pp. 552–552). Springer International Publishing. 10.1007/978-3-030-10576-1_300191 - Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The cognitive affective model of immersive learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. 10.1007/s10648-020-09586-2
- McDermott, R. N. (2016). Does Russia have a Gerasimov doctrine? The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters, 46(1). 10.55540/0031-1723.2827
- McMillan, S. (1996). Literacy and computer literacy: Definitions and comparisons. Computers & Education, 27(3–4), 161–170. 10.1016/S0360-1315(96)00026-7
- Meyer, J., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practicing within the disciplines (Occasional Report No. 4). Economic and Social Research Council.
https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=a7cb01b9cf2ca0a407ad0530fb4810d778a9403e - Michel-Villarreal, R., Vilalta-Perdomo, E., Salinas-Navarro, D. E., Thierry-Aguilera, R., & Gerardou, F. S. (2023). Challenges and opportunities of generative AI for higher education as explained by ChatGPT. Education Sciences, 13(9),
856 . 10.3390/educsci13090856 - Mumford, A. (2020). Understanding hybrid warfare. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 33(6), 824–827. 10.1080/09557571.2020.1837737
- Mumford, A., & Carlucci, P. (2023). Hybrid warfare: The continuation of ambiguity by other means. European Journal of International Security, 8(2), 192–206. 10.1017/eis.2022.19
- Murray, W. (2011).
Thoughts on red teaming . In War, strategy, and military effectiveness (pp. 139–167). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511996252.008 - Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, K. W. S., & Qiao, M. S. (2021a). AI literacy: Definition, teaching, evaluation and ethical issues. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 58(1), 504–509. 10.1002/pra2.487
- Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021b). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2,
100041 . 10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041 - Noh, Y. (2017). A study on the effect of digital literacy on information use behavior. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 49(1), 26–56. 10.1177/0961000615624527
- Notaker, H. (2023). In the blind spot: Influence operations and sub-threshold situational awareness in Norway. Journal of Strategic Studies, 46(3), 595–623. 10.1080/01402390.2022.2039634
- Onyancha, O. B. (2020). Knowledge visualization and mapping of information literacy, 1975–2018. IFLA Journal, 46(2), 107–123. 10.1177/0340035220906536
- Perrig, S. A., Scharowski, N., & Brühlman, F. (2023). Trust issues with trust scales: Examining the psychometric quality of trust measures in the context of AI. CHI EA ‘23: Extended Abstracts of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Article
297 , 1–7. 10.1145/3544549.3585808 - Porter, P. (2023). Out of the shadows: Ukraine and the shock of non-hybrid war. Journal of Global Security Studies, 8(3),
ogad014 . 10.1093/jogss/ogad014 - Reiners, D., Davahli, M. R., Karwowski, W., & Cruz-Neira, C. (2021). The combination of artificial intelligence and extended reality: A systematic review. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2,
721933 . 10.3389/frvir.2021.721933 - Ricci, S., Grassini, S., Ghigliazza, F., Viola, L., Kjeksrud, S., & Prasolova-Førland, E. (2024). Physiological data collection to detect emotional state during XR experiences: A pilot study in military education. In 2024 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW) (pp. 616–620).
IEEE . 10.1109/VRW62533.2024.00120 - Roennfeldt, C. F. (2022a). Collection: Military exercises and wargaming in professional military education. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1). 10.31374/sjms.169
- Roennfeldt, C. F. (2022b). Foreword to the special issue on military exercises and wargaming in professional military education. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1). 10.31374/sjms.168
- Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
- Rychert, A., Ganuza, M. L., & Selzer, M. N. (2024). Integrating GPT as an assistant for low-cost virtual reality escape-room games. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 44(4), 14–25. 10.1109/MCG.2024.3426314
- Salvagno, M., Taccone, F. S., & Gerli, A. G. (2023). Artificial intelligence hallucinations. Critical Care, 27(1),
180 . 10.1186/s13054-023-04473-y - Sanders, L. (2023).
Lawfare in the 21st century . In Routledge handbook of the future of warfare. Routledge. 10.4324/9781003299011-13 - Savin-Baden, M. (2014). Using problem-based learning: New constellations for the 21st century. The Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3–4), 197–219.
- Siau, K., & Wang, W. (2020). Artificial intelligence (AI) ethics: Ethics of AI and ethical AI. Journal of Database Management, 31(2), 74–87. 10.4018/JDM.2020040105
- Skoglund, T. H., Risan, P., & Johansen, R. B. (2025). Andragogy in a military leadership course. European Journal of Education Studies, 12(3). 10.46827/ejes.v12i3.5866
- Themeli, C., Prasolova-Førland, E., Hokstad, L. M., & Kjeksrud, S. (2024).
Experiential learning and empathy in extended reality for teaching protection of civilians . In V. L. Uskov, R. J. Howlett, & L. C. Jain (Eds.), Smart education and e-learning 2024 (pp. 15–25). Springer. 10.1007/978-981-97-4954-6_7 - Thomassen, B. (2009). The uses and meaning of liminality. International Political Anthropology, 2, 5–28.
- Thomassen, B. (2018). Liminality and the modern: Living through the in-between (1st pbk. ed.). Routledge.
- Tracy, K., & Spantidi, O. (2025). Impact of GPT-driven teaching assistants in VR learning environments. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 18, 192–205. 10.1109/TLT.2025.3539179
- Turner, V. (1970).
Betwixt and between: The liminal period in rites de passage . In The forest of symbols (pp. 93–111). Cornell University Press. - Vazhayil, A., Shetty, R., Bhavani, R. R., & Akshay, N. (2019). Focusing on teacher education to introduce AI in schools: Perspectives and illustrative findings. 2019 IEEE Tenth International Conference on Technology for Education (T4E), 71–77. 10.1109/T4E.2019.00021
- Wang, B., Rau, P.-L. P., & Yuan, T. (2023). Measuring user competence in using artificial intelligence: Validity and reliability of artificial intelligence literacy scale. Behaviour & Information Technology, 42(9), 1324–1337. 10.1080/0144929X.2022.2072768
- Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35. 10.1145/1118178.1118215
- Wirtz, J. J. (2017). Life in the “gray zone”: Observations for contemporary strategists. Defense & Security Analysis, 33(2), 106–114. 10.1080/14751798.2017.1310702
- Xiao, W., & Bie, M. (2019). The reform and practice of educational technology major in the age of artificial intelligence 2.0. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 677(5),
052094 . 10.1088/1757-899X/677/5/052094 - Xie, B., Liu, H., Alghofaili, R., Zhang, Y., Jiang, Y., Lobo, F. D., Li, C., Li, W., Huang, H., Akdere, M., Mousas, C., & Yu, L.-F. (2021). A review on virtual reality skill training applications. Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 2,
645153 . 10.3389/frvir.2021.645153 - Zenko, M. (2015). Red team: How to succeed by thinking like the enemy. Basic Books.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.414 | Journal eISSN: 2596-3856
Language: English
Page range: 62 - 81
Submitted on: Apr 3, 2025
Accepted on: Jan 15, 2026
Published on: Feb 9, 2026
Published by: Scandinavian Military Studies
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
© 2026 Stian Kjeksrud, Silje Alette Engdal, Leif Martin Hokstad, Simone Grassini, Petter H. F. Lindqvist, published by Scandinavian Military Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.