
The Relationship Between Civilian and Military Leaders in Norway – Gap or Convergence?
References
- Abrahamsson, B. (1971). Military professionalism and political power. Gøteborgs Offsettrykkeri.
- Baier, A. (1986). Trust and antitrust. Ethics, 96, 231–260. 10.1086/292745
- Bourdieu, P. (1979). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste. Harvard University Press.
- Brooks, R. (2019). Integrating the civil-military relations subfield. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 379–398. 10.1146/annurev-polisci-060518-025407
- Bürklin, W., Rebenstorf, H., Flensburg, D., Klingemann, H.-D., Kühnel, S., Müller, W., Strømbeck, J., Wegener, B., & Wolf, C. (1997). Eliten in Deutschland. Leske+Budrich. 10.1007/978-3-663-09920-8
- Citrin, J., & Stoker, L. (2018). Political trust in a cynical age. Annual Review of Political Science, 21, 49–70. 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050316-092550
- Cohen, A., & Cohen, S. A. (2022). Beyond the conventional civil-military “gap”: Cleavages and convergences in Israel. Armed Forces & Society, 49(1), 164–184. 10.1177/0095327X20903072
- Cohn, L. (1999). The evolution of the civil-military “gap” debate [Paper presentation]. TISS Project on the Gap Between the Military and Civilian Society.
- Delhey, J., & Newton, K. (2005). Predicting cross-national levels of social trust: Global pattern or Nordic exceptionalism? European Sociological Review, 21(4), 311–327. 10.1093/esr/jci022
- Dowd, J. J. (2001). Connected to society: The political beliefs of U.S. Army generals. Armed Forces & Society, 27(3), 343–372. 10.1177/0095327X0102700302
- Engelstad, F., Gulbrandsen, T., Midtbøen, A., & Teigen, M. (2022). Eliter i endring: Makt, demokrati og representasjon. Universitetsforlaget.
- Feaver, P. D., & Kohn, R. H. (Eds.). (2001). Soldiers and civilians: The civil military gap and American national security. MIT Press.
- Giddens, A. (1972). Elites in the British class structure. The Sociological Review, 20(3), 345–372. 10.1111/j.1467-954X.1972.tb00214.x
- Græger, N. (2011). Offisersprofesjon i endring: 20 år med internasjonalisering og transformasjon av Forsvaret. Sosiologi i Dag, 41(1), 76–101.
- Grimen, H. (2009). Hva er tillit. Universitetsforlaget.
- Grønmo, S. (1973). Militære meninger: Analyse av høyere og lavere befal 1918–1970 [Revised master’s thesis]. Institutt for Samfunnsforskning.
- Grønmo, S. (2024). Social research methods. Sage.
- Gulbrandsen, T. (2007). Elite integration and institutional trust. Comparative Sociology, 6, 190–214. 10.1163/156913307X187441
- Gulbrandsen, T. (2019). Elites in an egalitarian society: Support for the Nordic model. Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978-3-319-95984-9
- Gulbrandsen, T., Engelstad, F., Klausen, T. B., Skjeie, H., Teigen, M., & Østerud, Ø. (2002). Norske makteliter. Gyldendal Akademisk.
- Haaland, T. L., Hobson, R., & Bjerga, K. I. (2021). Den militære profesjonen, staten og samfunnet. Cappelen Damm Akademisk.
- Hansen, M. N. (2023). Økonomiske eliter og økonomisk makt. Norsk Sosiologisk Tidsskrift, 7(4–5), 92–109. 10.18261/nost.7.4-5.7
- Higley, J., & Burton, M. (2006). Elite foundations of liberal democracy. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Høiback, H. (2012).
The multidimensional transformation of the Norwegian military profession—From national duty to individual rights . In A. Roelsgaard Obling & L. Victor Tilborg (Eds.), Transformations of the military profession and professionalization in Scandinavia. Journal of Military Studies Press. - Holme, N. (2013). Forsvarspolitikken ved et veiskille (Civita rapport). Civita.
- Hosar, H. P. (2014).
Offiserane . In R. Slagstad & J. Messel (Eds.), Profesjonshistorier (pp. 381–411). Pax Forlag. - Huntington, S. (1957). The soldier and the state: The theory and politics of the civilian-military relations. Belknap Press.
- Janowitz, M. (1960). The professional soldier: A social and political portrait. The Free Press. 10.2307/1891771
- Kahn, S. R. (2012). The sociology of elites. Annual Review of Sociology, 38, 361–377. 10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145542
- Kristiansen, S. T., & Sødergren, H. (2013).
Idealoffiseren: Et problem for økt mangfold i Hæren . In F. Brundtland Steder (Ed.), Militære kvinner: Forsvarets akilleshæl? (Chapter 8). Abstrakt Forlag. - Levi, M., & Stoker, L. (2000). Political trust and trustworthiness. Annual Review of Political Science, 3, 475–507. 10.1146/annurev.polisci.3.1.475
- Liebert, H., & Golby, J. (2017). Midlife crisis? The all-volunteer force at 40. Armed Forces & Society, 43(1), 115–138. 10.1177/0095327X16641430
- Listhaug, O., & Ringdal, K. (2007, January 3–5). Trust in political institutions: The Nordic countries compared with Europe [Paper presentation]. Norwegian Political Science Meeting, Trondheim, Norway. 10.4337/9781848444997.00013
- Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. Oxford University Press.
- Newton, K., & Norris, P. (2000).
Confidence in public institutions: Faith, culture or performance . In S. J. Pharr & R. D. Putnam (Eds.), Disaffected democracies (pp. 52–73). Princeton University Press. 10.1515/9780691186849-007 - Offe, C. (1999).
How can we trust our fellow citizens . In M. E. Warren (Ed.), Democracy and trust (pp. 42–87). Cambridge University Press. 10.1017/CBO9780511659959.003 - Østerud, Ø., Engelstad, F., & Selle, P. (2003). Makten og demokratiet. Gyldendal Akademisk.
- Rahbek-Clemmensen, J., Archer, E. M., Barr, J., Belkin, A., Guerrero, M., Hall, C., & Swain, K. E. O. (2012). Conceptualizing the civil-military gap: A research note. Armed Forces & Society, 38(4), 649–678. 10.1177/0095327X12456509
- Reeves, A., & Friedman, S. (2024). Born to rule. Harvard University Press. 10.4159/9780674297708
- Ricks, T. E. (1997, July). The widening gap between the military and society. Atlantic Monthly, 280, 67–78.
- Snyder, N. N. (2025). Polarized patriots: Political giving by U.S. military officers. Armed Forces & Society. Advance online publication. 10.1177/0095327X251346444
- Solheim, S. (2018). Norsk forsvarspolitikk 1990–2018: Distriktspolitiske hensyn i norsk forsvarsdiskurs etter den kalde krigen [Master’s thesis, Universitetet i Tromsø].
- Strachan, H. (2003). The civil-military “gap” in Britain. Journal of Strategic Studies, 26(2), 46–63. 10.1080/01402390412331302975
- Urben, H. A. (2014). Wearing politics on their sleeves? Levels of political activism of active duty army officers. Armed Forces & Society, 40(3), 568–591. 10.1177/0095327X12467774
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.292 | Journal eISSN: 2596-3856
Language: English
Page range: 401 - 415
Submitted on: May 21, 2024
Accepted on: Sep 24, 2025
Published on: Oct 24, 2025
Published by: Scandinavian Military Studies
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year
Keywords:
© 2025 Trygve Gulbrandsen, published by Scandinavian Military Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.