Skip to main content
Have a personal or library account? Click to login
Hybrid Warfare at Sea? Russia, Svalbard and the Arctic Cover

Hybrid Warfare at Sea? Russia, Svalbard and the Arctic

Open Access
|Jul 2024

References

  1. Al Jazeera. (2022, June 29). Russia threatens retaliation over Norway Arctic island goods ban. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/29/russia-threatens-retaliation-against-norway-over-artic-access
  2. Anderson, D. H. (2009). The Status Under International Law of the Maritime Areas Around Svalbard. Ocean Development & International Law, 40(4), 373384. DOI: 10.1080/00908320903285455
  3. Arlov, T. B. (2003). Svalbards historie (2nd ed.). Tapir Akademiske Forlag.
  4. Åtland, K. (2015). Den russiske kystvakten mot 2020 - organisering, kapasiteter og operativ virksomhet. In FFI-rapport. Norwegian Defence Establishment (FFI).
  5. Åtland, K., & Bruusgaard, K. V. (2009). When Security Speech Acts Misfire: Russia and the Elektron Incident. Security Dialogue, 40(3), 333353. DOI: 10.1177/0967010609336201
  6. Åtland, K., Nilsen, T., & Pedersen, T. (2022). Military Muscle-Flexing as Interstate Communication: Russian NOTAM Warnings off the Coast of Norway, 2015–2021. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 5(1), 6378. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.133
  7. Åtland, K., & Pedersen, T. (2009). The Svalbard Archipelago in Russian Security Policy: Overcoming the Legacy of Fear – or Reproducing It? European Security, 17(2–3), 227251. DOI: 10.1080/09662830802642470
  8. Balmforth, T., & Adomaitis, N. (2020, April 17). Russia files protest after accusing Norway of detaining trawler near Svalbard. Reuters.
  9. Bateman, S. (2007). UNCLOS and its limitations as the foundation for a regional maritime security regime. Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, 19(3), 2756. DOI: 10.1080/10163270709464140
  10. BBC News. (2023, October 26). The Inquiry: Is peace in the Arctic melting? The Inquiry. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct4wdk
  11. Beckman, R., Townsend-Gault, I., Schofield, C., Davenport, T., & Bernard, L. (2013). Beyond Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea: Legal Frameworks for the Joint Development of Hydrocarbon Resources. Edward Elgar. DOI: 10.4337/9781781955949
  12. Bjur, I., Hilde, P. S., & Eggen, K.-A. (2020). Mellom varmebølge og isfront: nordområdene, sikkerhet og storpolitikk. Internasjonal Politikk, 78(4), 478489. DOI: 10.23865/intpol.v78.2399
  13. Boulègue, M. (2019). Russia’s Military Posture in the Arctic: Managing Hard Power in a ‘Low Tension’ Environment. https://reader.chathamhouse.org/russia-s-military-posture-arctic-managing-hard-power-low-tension-environment
  14. Brugeron, M. (2022, December 3). Sécurité alimentaire : en Norvège, le bunker de l’apocalypse. Le Parisien. https://www.leparisien.fr/environnement/securite-alimentaire-en-norvege-le-bunker-de-lapocalypse-03-12-2022-M5VKCYP33FA2TOVBE5LPS7DS5Q.php
  15. Bruusgaard, K. V. (2006). Fiskerikonflikter i Barentshavet - potensial for eskalering? (Fisheries conflicts in the Barents Sea - Potential for escalation?). https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/handle/11250/2444396
  16. Bryant, M. (2023, October 10). Barentsburg: the Norwegian town feeling the chill of the Ukraine war. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/10/barentsburg-the-norwegian-town-feeling-the-chill-of-the-ukraine-war
  17. Buzan, B., Wæver, O., & Wilde, J. de. (1998). Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner. DOI: 10.1515/9781685853808
  18. Carment, D., & Belo, D. (2018). War’s Future: The Risks and Rewards of Grey-Zone Conflict and Hybrid Warfare. https://www.cgai.ca/wars_future_the_risks_and_rewards_of_grey_zone_conflict_and_hybrid_warfare
  19. Chakravorty, P. K. (2019). Hybrid Warfare in the Sino-Indian Context. CLAWS Journal, 12(2), 8095.
  20. Churchill, R. R., & Ulfstein, G. (2010). The Disputed Maritime Zones around Svalbard. In M. H. Nordquist, J. N. Moore, & T. H. Heidar (Eds.), Changes in the Arctic Environment and the Law of the Sea (pp. 551593). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004177567.i-594.156
  21. Council of Foreign Relations. (2022). Conflict in Ukraine. Global Conflict Tracker. https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ukraine
  22. Cullen, P. J., & Reichborn-Kjennerud, E. (2017). MCDC Countering Hybrid Warfare Project: Understanding Hybrid Warfare. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/647776/dar_mcdc_hybrid_warfare.pdf
  23. Dayspring, S. M. (2015). Toward a theory of hybrid warfare: the Russian conduct of war during peace [Naval Postgraduate School]. https://calhoun.nps.edu/handle/10945/47931
  24. Depledge, D. (2020). Train Where You Expect to Fight: Why Military Exercises Have Increased in the High North. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 3(1), 288301. DOI: 10.31374/sjms.64
  25. Devyatkin, P. (2023). Arctic exceptionalism: a narrative of cooperation and conflict from Gorbachev to Medvedev and Putin. Polar Journal, 13(2), 336357. DOI: 10.1080/2154896X.2023.2258658
  26. Dunlap, C. J. Jr. (2008). Lawfare Today: A Perspective. Yale Journal of International Affairs, Winter 2008, 146154.
  27. Endo, T. (2017). The Conceptual Definition of “Irregular Warfare” and the Today’s International Security Environment. 2017 International Forum on War History: Proceedings. https://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/event/forum/pdf/2017/04_endo.pdf
  28. Fermann, G., & Inderberg, T. H. (2015). Norway and the 2005 Elektron Affair: Conflict of Competencies and Competent Realpolitik. In T. G. Jakobsen (Ed.), War: An Introduction to Theories and Research on Collective Violence (2nd ed., pp. 373402). Nova Science.
  29. Fife, R. E. (2021). Hvordan skal man tolke Svalbardtraktaten til havs? ‘Territorialfarvannet’: Etterforskningskritt i fem episoder. In H. Ø. Pharo, K. I. Bjerga, S. Engh, G. D. Hatlehol, & K. Offerdal (Eds.), Historiker, strateg og brobygger: Festskrift til Rolf Tamnes 70 år (pp. 4676). Pax Forlag.
  30. Finnset, K. A., Berg, A., & Rostad, I. L. (2022, October 7). Russland anklager Norge for økt militær tilstedeværelse på Svalbard (Russia accuses Norway of increased military presence on Svalbard). NRK.
  31. FNI. (2023). Nansens Nordområdeseminar 2023: Geopolitikk, Ressurser og Identitet i Nord. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXKXKuwgObo&ab_channel=FridtjofNansensInstitutt
  32. Forsvarskommisjonen av 2021. (2023). NOU 2023: 14. Forsvarskommisjonen av 2021 — Forsvar for fred og frihet.
  33. Fredriksen, B., Pettersen, B. M., Hesla, G. K., Eriksen, I., & Gulldahl, H. (2022, June 26). Kabelmysteriene. NRK. https://www.nrk.no/nordland/xl/russiske-tralere-krysset-kabler-i-vesteralen-og-svalbard-for-brudd-1.16007084#intro-authors--expand
  34. Galeotti, M. (2016). Hybrid, ambiguous, and non-linear? How new is Russia’s ‘new way of war’? Small Wars & Insurgencies, 27(2), 282301. DOI: 10.1080/09592318.2015.1129170
  35. Giegerich, B. (2016). Hybrid Warfare and the Changing Character of Conflict. Connections, 15(2), 6572. DOI: 10.11610/Connections.15.2.05
  36. Giles, K. (2016). Russia’s ‘New’ Tools for Confronting the West Continuity and Innovation in Moscow’s Exercise of Power. SIRIUS - Zeitschrift Für Strategische Analysen, 1(2).
  37. Goretsky, R., Hamilton, O., Qi, C., & Srdanovic, A. (2021). The Quest for Arctic Power: A Case Study of Svalbard as a Focal Point of Arctic Security. Storymaps.
  38. Grossman, D., & Ma, L. (2020). A Short History of China’s Fishing Militia and What It May Tell Us.
  39. Gulldahl, H., & Eriksen, I. (2024, May 26). This is what the damaged Svalbard cable looked like when it came up from the depths. NRK. https://www.nrk.no/tromsogfinnmark/this-is-what-the-damaged-svalbard-cable-looked-like-when-it-came-up-from-the-depths-1.16895904
  40. Heazle, M. (2021). Countering China’s Grey Zone Incursions Through Better Management and Policing of Illegal Fishing in the South China Sea. https://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0031/1447645/China-grey-zone.pdf
  41. Hemmer, J. E., Aukrust, M., Øydegard, J. K., Myklebust, O., Nossum, M. S., Stenseth, O.-D., Ramsland, M., & O’Connor, M. B. (2007). Arbeidsgruppen for utredning av oppgave- og myndighetsfordelingen mellom Kystvakten, Politiet og påtalemyndigheten.
  42. Hicks, K. H., & Metrick, A. (2018). The Russia Challenge. CSIS. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep22447.6
  43. Hoffman, F. G. (2011). The Hybrid Character of Modern Conflict. In R. R. T. Paul Brister, W. H. Natter (Eds.), Hybrid Warfare and Transnational Threats: Perspectives for an Era of Persistent Conflict. Council for Emerging National Security Affairs.
  44. Hoffman, F. G. (2018). Examining Complex Forms of Conflict: Gray Zone and Hybrid Challenges. PRISM, 7(4). https://cco.ndu.edu/news/article/1680696/examining-complex-forms-of-conflict-gray-zone-and-hybrid-challenges/
  45. Holtsmark, S. G. (1993). A Soviet Grab for the High North. USSR. Svalbard and Northern Norway 1920–1953. Forsvarsstudier, 7(1993).
  46. Holtsmark, S. G. (Ed.). (1995). Norge og Sovjetunionen 1917–1955. En utenrikspolitisk dokumentasjon. Cappelen.
  47. Holtsmark, S. G. (Ed.). (2015). Naboer i frykt og forventning: Norge og Russland 1917–2014 (Neighbours in fear and anticipation: Norway and Russia 1917–2014). Pax Forlag.
  48. Hønneland, G. (2014). Norway and Russia: Bargaining Precautionary Fisheries Management in the Barents Sea. Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 5(1), 7599. DOI: 10.23865/arctic.v5.53
  49. Hønneland, G., & Jørgensen, A.-K. (2015). Kompromisskulturen i Barentshavet (the culture of compromise in the Barents Sea). In T. Heier & A. Kjølberg (Eds.), Norge og Russland: Sikkerhetspolitiske utfordringer i nordområdene (Norway and Russia: security challenges in the High North) (pp. 5768). Universitetsforlaget.
  50. Hosoda, T. (2023, May 20). The Challenge of Maritime Hybrid Threats in the East China Sea. Maritime Issues. http://www.maritimeissues.com/most-prominent-news/the-challenge-of-maritime-hybrid-threats-in-the-east-china-sea.html
  51. ICRC. (2023). Conduct of hostilities. How Does Law Protect in War? https://casebook.icrc.org/a_to_z/glossary/conduct-hostilities
  52. Inderberg, T. H. J. (2007). Den utenrikspolitiske håndteringen av Elektronsaken: kompetent realpolitikk eller kompetansestrid?
  53. Jensen, Ø. (2020). The Svalbard Treaty and Norwegian Sovereignty. Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 11(2020), 82107. DOI: 10.23865/arctic.v11.2348
  54. Johansen, P. A. (2020, October 13). Regjeringen: Russland sto bak dataangrep på Stortinget. Aftenposten. https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/39JXme/regjeringen-russland-sto-bak-dataangrep-paa-stortinget
  55. Jørgensen, A.-K. (2022). Stock-Shifts and Regime Resilience in the Barents Sea. In O. S. Stokke, A. Østhagen, & A. Raspotnik (Eds.), Marine Resources, Climate Change and International Management Regimes (pp. 153178). Bloomsbury. DOI: 10.5040/9780755618392.ch-8
  56. Jørgensen, A.-K., & Østhagen, A. (2020). Norges vern av suverene rettigheter rundt Svalbard: Russiske persepsjoner og reaksjoner (Norway’s defence of sovereign rights around Svalbard: Russian perceptions and reactions). Internasjonal Politikk, 78(2), 167192. DOI: 10.23865/intpol.v78.1838
  57. Jørgensen, J. H. (2010). Russisk svalbardspolitikk (Russian Svalbard policy). Tapir Akademiske Forlag.
  58. Khalevinsky, I. V. (2020). About Spitsbergen and around it. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. https://archive.mid.ru/web/guest/about/social_organizations/association/-/asset_publisher/w6CkLeKcy2bQ/content/id/4058415
  59. Kibar, O., Prestmo, A., & Kenny, E. R. (2021, October). OPERASJON LAZAREV: Slår alarm om kartlegging av Norges kritiske infrastruktur. Dagens Næringsliv.
  60. Kleine-Ahlbrandt, S. (2012). Fish Story: The risk of conflict in the South China Sea is real. But not for the reasons you might think. Foreign Policy. http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/06/25/fish-story/
  61. Kolstad, D. (2020). Between War and Peace: Toward Creating a Norsof Strategy to Defend Against Gray Zone Threats [Naval Postgraduate School]. In Master Thesis. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/BETWEEN_WAR_AND_PEACE-_TOWARD_CREATING_A_NORSOF_STRATEGY_TO_DEFEND_AGAINST_GRAY_ZONE_THREATS_%28IA_betweenwarandpea1094564915%29.pdf
  62. Kraska, J., & Pedrozo, R. (2013). International Maritime Security Law. Brill Nijhoff. DOI: 10.1163/9789004233577
  63. Lohela, T., & Schatz, V. (Eds.). (2019). Handbook on Maritime Hybrid Threats — 10 Scenarios and legal scans. The European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats. https://www.hybridcoe.fi/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/NEW_Handbook-on-maritime-threats_RGB.pdf
  64. Lott, A. (2022). Hybrid Threats and the Law of the Sea. Brill Nijhoff. DOI: 10.1163/9789004509368
  65. Melino, M., Conley, H. A., & Bermudez, J. S Jr.. (2020). The Ice Curtain: Modernization on the Kola Peninsula. https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/200324_KolaPeninsula_layout_FINAL.pdf
  66. Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. (2021). The frigate ‘Admiral Kasatonov’ will work out anti-submarine missions in the Norwegian Sea. News. https://function.mil.ru/news_page/country/more.htm?id=12353822@egNews
  67. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. (2005). Transcript of Remarks and Replies to Media Questions by Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia Sergey Lavrov. Press release, 18 October. Press Release. https://www.mid.ru/ru/press_service/minister_speeches/-/asset_publisher/7OvQR5KJWVmR/content/id/424030?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_7OvQR5KJWVmR&_101_INSTANCE_7OvQR5KJWVmR_languageId=en_GB
  68. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. (2020a). Briefing by the spokesman of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs M. V. Zakharova. Press. https://www.mid.ru/press_service/spokesman/briefings/-/asset_publisher/D2wHaWMCU6Od/content/id/4101166
  69. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. (2020b). Press release on Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov’s message to Norwegian Foreign Minister Ine Eriksen Soreide on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the Spitsbergen Treaty. News. https://www.mid.ru/en/web/guest/maps/no/-/asset_publisher/f4MKo6byouc4/content/id/4019093
  70. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. (2022). Commentary by MFA Spokesperson Maria Zakharova on the Strengthening of the Norwegian Military Presence in the Svalbard Archipelago. News. https://mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/news/1832770/
  71. Mishra, R. (2017). Code of conduct in the South China sea: More discord than accord. Maritime Affairs, 13(2), 6275. DOI: 10.1080/09733159.2017.1412098
  72. Moe, A., & Jensen, Ø. (2020). Svalbard og havområdene – nye utenrikspolitiske utfordringer for Norge? (Svalbard and the maritime areas - challenges for Norway?). Internasjonal Politikk, 78(4), 511522. DOI: 10.23865/intpol.v78.2388
  73. Molenaar, E. J. (2012). Fisheries Regulation in the Maritime Zones of Svalbard. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 27(1), 358. DOI: 10.1163/157180812X610541
  74. Morris, L. J., Mazarr, M. J., Jeffrey, W., Hornung, S. P., Binnendijk, A., & Kepe, M. (2019). Gaining Competitive Advantage in the Gray Zone: Response Options for Coercive Aggression Below the Threshold of Major War. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2942.html
  75. Nahmen, A. von. (2023, June 9). Ukraine war raises tensions in Svalbard archipelago. DW. https://www.dw.com/en/ukraine-war-raises-tensions-in-svalbard-archipelago/video-66740399
  76. Nilsen, T. (2021, April 11). Heavily-armed frigate sails Norwegian Sea to ‘ensure safety of Russian fishermen’. The Barents Observer.
  77. Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security. (2016). Meld. St. 32 (2015–2016) Svalbard. 32(May 11, 2016).
  78. Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security. (2022). Meld. St. 9 (2022–2023) Report to the Storting (white paper): National control and cyber resilience to safeguard national security. https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/meld.-st.-9-20222023/id2950130/
  79. Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security. (2024). Meld. St. 26 (2023–2024), Melding til Stortinget: Svalbard. https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/meld.-st.-26-20232024/id3041130/
  80. NRK. (2022). Brennpunkt: Skyggekrigen (Spotlight: Shadow war). NRK. https://tv.nrk.no/serie/brennpunkt-skyggekrigen?t=1695724665888
  81. Olsen, J. A. (2017). NATO and the North Atlantic: Revitalising Collective Defence. https://rusi.org/publication/whitehall-papers/nato-and-north-atlantic-revitalising-collective-defence
  82. Olsen, T., Thoresen, F., Johansen, P. A., & Trædal, T. J. (2022, October 1). Russiske «forskningsskip» har trålet den norske kysten siden i sommer: – Økende bekymring. Aftenposten. https://www.aftenposten.no/norge/i/JQEPmb/russiske-forskningsskip-har-traalet-den-norske-kysten-siden-isommer-oekende-bekymring
  83. Oma Vyvial, J. (2023). Videreføring av samarbeid: Norsk-russisk kontakt i en geopolitisk anstrengt tid: Vol. 8/2023. https://www.fni.no/publikasjoner/videreforing-av-samarbeid-norsk-russisk-kontakt-i-en-geopolitisk-anstrengt-tid
  84. Osgood, R. E. (1976). Military implications of the new ocean politics. The Adelphi Papers, 16(122), 1016. DOI: 10.1080/05679327608457272
  85. Østhagen, A. (2016). High North, Low Politics Maritime Cooperation with Russia in the Arctic. Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 7(1), 83100. DOI: 10.17585/arctic.v7.255
  86. Østhagen, A. (2018). Managing Conflict at Sea: The Case of Norway and Russia in the Svalbard Zone. Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 9, 100123. DOI: 10.23865/arctic.v9.1084
  87. Østhagen, A. (2020). Coast Guards and Ocean Politics in the Arctic. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-0754-0
  88. Østhagen, A. (2022). Ocean Geopolitics: Marine Resources, Maritime Boundary Disputes and the Law of the Sea. Edward Elgar. DOI: 10.4337/9781802201567
  89. Østhagen, A. (2023). The Arctic after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine: The increased risk of conflict and hybrid threats. https://www.hybridcoe.fi/publications/hybrid-coe-paper-18-the-arctic-after-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-the-increased-risk-of-conflict-and-hybrid-threats/
  90. Østhagen, A., Jørgensen, A.-K., & Moe, A. (2020). Рыбоохранная зона Шпицбергена: как Россия и Норвегия разрешают арктические разногласия (‘The Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone: How Russia and Norway Manage an Arctic Dispute’). Арктика и Север (Arctic and North), 40, 183205. http://www.arcticandnorth.ru/article_index_years.php?ELEMENT_ID=348131
  91. Pedersen, T. (2008). The constrained politics of the Svalbard offshore area. Marine Policy, 32(6), 913919. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2008.01.006
  92. Pedersen, T., & Henriksen, T. (2009). Svalbard’s Maritime Zones: The End of Legal Uncertainty? The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 24(1), 141161. DOI: 10.1163/157180808X353920
  93. Pedersen, T., & Steinveg, B. (2024). Russia’s Clashing Ambitions: Arctic Status Quo and World-Order Revision. Politics and Governance, 12, 7311. DOI: 10.17645/pag.7311
  94. Pettersen, B. M., Eriksen, I., Gulldahl, H., Fredriksen, B., Koppergård, E., Norstrøm, J., & Ursin, E. (2023, April 19). Spionskipene. NRK. https://www.nrk.no/nordland/xl/fiskebater-og-andre-fartoy-fra-russland-kan-drive-spionasje-og-etterretning-i-norge-1.16371100#intro-authors--expand
  95. Roszko, E. (2015). Maritime territorialisation as performance of sovereignty and nationhood in the South China Sea. Nations and Nationalism. DOI: 10.1111/nana.12094
  96. Roszko, E. (2016). Fishers and territorial anxieties in china and vietnam: Narratives of the south China sea beyond the frame of the nation. Cross-Currents. DOI: 10.1353/ach.2017.0001
  97. Roszko, E. (2017, April 1). South China Sea: The Fishermen on the Front Lines Vietnam’s and China’s fisheries are at the forefront of the South China Sea disputes. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2017/04/south-china-sea-the-fishermen-on-the-front-lines/
  98. Sacks, B. J., Stephenson, S. R., Pezard, S., Tingstad, A., & Sørensen, C. T. N. (2021). Exploring Gaps in Arctic Governance Identifying Potential Sources of Conflict and Mitigating Measures. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA1007-1.html
  99. Schmid, J. (2021). Introduction to Hybrid Warfare - A Framework for comprehensive Analysis. In R. Thiele (Ed.), Hybrid Warfare: Future and Technologies (pp. 1132). Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-658-35109-0_2
  100. Schnelle, S. (2018). Kartlegging av maritime hybride trusler (Mapping of hybride threats) [Norwegian Defence College]. https://fhs.brage.unit.no/fhs-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2583966/2018_Masteroppgave_Schnelle_Stian.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  101. Schofield, C., Sumaila, R., & Cheung, W. (2016, August 15). Fishing, not oil, is at the heart of the South China Sea disput. The Conversation.
  102. Schopmans, H. R. (2018). Explaining (non-)cooperation on disputed maritime resources: joint development agreements, disputed territory, and lessons from the Falkland Islands. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 10(2), 98117. DOI: 10.1080/18366503.2017.1420997
  103. Seely, R. (2017). Defining Contemporary Russian Warfare: Beyond the Hybrid Headline. The RUSI Journal, 162(1), 5059. DOI: 10.1080/03071847.2017.1301634
  104. Sennikov, S. A. (2014). Mеждународные договоры Pоссийской Федерации как правовая основа рыболовства в морском районе архипелага Шпицберген (International Agreements of the Russian Federation as a legal basis for the fisheries in the maritime area of the Svalbard Arhcipelago). Eurasian Law Journal.
  105. Skram, A.-I. (2017). Alltid til Stede: Kystvakten 1997–2017 (Always present: Coast Guard 1997–2017). Fagbokforlaget.
  106. Stavridis, J. (2016). Maritime Hybrid Warfare Is Coming. U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 142(12). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2016/december
  107. Stokke, O. S. (2022). External Shocks, Resilience and Barents Sea Fisher Compliance. In O. S. Stokke, A. Østhagen, & A. Raspotnik (Eds.), Marine Resources, Climate Change and International Management Regimes (pp. 179196). Bloomsbury. DOI: 10.5040/9780755618392.ch-9
  108. Stormark, K. (2017). Russland trente på invasjon av Svalbard. Aldrimer.No. https://www.aldrimer.no/russland-trente-pa-invasjon-av-svalbard/
  109. Svalbard Treaty. (1920). The Svalbard Treaty (pp. 115). University of Oslo. https://www.jus.uio.no/english/services/library/treaties/01/1-11/svalbard-treaty.html
  110. Tamnes, R. (2020). Sikkerhetspolitiske utfordringer og militær virksomhet. In I. Dahl & Ø. Jensen (Eds.), Svalbardtraktaten 100 år (pp. 135184). Fagbokforlaget.
  111. Tiller, R., & Nyman, E. (2017). The clear and present danger to the Norwegian sovereignty of the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone: Enter the snow crab. Ocean and Coastal Management, 137, 2433. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.12.012
  112. Todorov, A. (2020). Russia in maritime areas off Spitsbergen (Svalbard): Is it worth opening the Pandora’s Box? Marine Policy, 122(December). DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104264
  113. Tønnesson, S. (2020). Four Aspects of the Crisis in the South China Sea. In L. Buszynski & D. T. Hai (Eds.), The South China Sea: From a Regional Maritime Dispute to Geo-Strategic Competition (pp. 923). Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9780429331480-2
  114. Ulfstein, G. (1995). The Svalbard Treaty: From Terra Nullius to Norwegian Sovereignty. Aschehoug.
  115. USA Today. (2023, March 14). Exploring two of the northernmost places in the world: Norway’s Svalbard archipelago, Greenland. USA Today. https://eu.usatoday.com/picture-gallery/travel/destinations/2022/12/03/svalbard-norway-look-archipelago/10728179002/
  116. Utenriksdepartementet (Norwgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs). (1977). Forskrift om fiskevernsone ved Svalbard.
  117. Volkov, K. (2020, March 21). Шпицберген полит потом и кровью наших предков (Svalbard is watered with the sweat and blood of our ancestors). RG.
  118. Vylegzhanin, A. N., & Zilanov, V. (2007). Spitsbergen: legal regime of adjacent marine areas. Eleven International Publishing.
  119. Wilhelmsen, J., & Gjerde, K. L. (2018). Norway and Russia in the Arctic: New Cold War Contamination? Arctic Review on Law and Politics, 9, 382407. DOI: 10.23865/arctic.v9.1334
  120. Wither, J. K. (2016). Making Sense of Hybrid Warfare. Connections, 15(2), 7387. DOI: 10.11610/Connections.15.2.06
  121. Woker, H., Schartmüller, B., Dølven, K. O., & Blix, K. (2020). The law of the sea and current practices of marine scientific research in the Arctic. Marine Policy, 115(May 2020), 103850. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.103850
  122. Wormdal, B. (2022, August 25). USA og Tyrkia nektes å bruke satellittstasjon på Svalbard (US and Turkey denied usage of satellite station on Svalbard). NRK.
  123. Yerkes, A. (2016). Whose Fish? Looking at Svalbard’s Fisheries Protection Zone. Polar Connection. https://polarconnection.org/svalbard-fisheries-protection-zone/
  124. Zhang, H., & Bateman, S. (2017). Fishing Militia, the Securitization of Fishery and the South China Sea Dispute. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 39(2), 288314. DOI: 10.1355/cs39-2b
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.233 | Journal eISSN: 2596-3856
Language: English
Page range: 111 - 130
Submitted on: Aug 17, 2023
Accepted on: Jun 11, 2024
Published on: Jul 5, 2024
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 1 issue per year

© 2024 Cecilie Juul Stensrud, Andreas Østhagen, published by Scandinavian Military Studies
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.