Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
![Wind speed distribution for different K. Taken from [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=421b8c6537b12ae25ef63a3ed98f6469cc0bf47eccded0cc159eebb08eb9cc39&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 5.
![Taken from Ref. [19]. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/projects/hazard/img/ttor9599.gif](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=9613cf35dc93b8a742d9e87d67e582e9c3971a1f6591639093697b84350c9a38&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 6.
![Seif dune (barkhans) is a consequence of uneven wind on a scale of hundreds of meters. Image from Ref. [10].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=2f639912cd64ca5fc9e55861200ab9a75cb4383ce9e9d675e72e4c066f7acf69&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 7.
![Average wind power. Mexico (up), Latvia (down). Pictures are taken from Ref. [15].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=51d5b3ea0498cc2f73ee43aa0def3cbb6828f6703d5b10530773a8468ce8d103&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 8.
![Taken from the study by Baseer et al.[3].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=68f8f08bbef6d1efcafbc7d4a785a613d089b4fa826040c235ed1e498be9c815&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)



![Wind speed distribution for different K. Taken from [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=421b8c6537b12ae25ef63a3ed98f6469cc0bf47eccded0cc159eebb08eb9cc39&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Taken from Ref. [19]. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/projects/hazard/img/ttor9599.gif](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=9613cf35dc93b8a742d9e87d67e582e9c3971a1f6591639093697b84350c9a38&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Seif dune (barkhans) is a consequence of uneven wind on a scale of hundreds of meters. Image from Ref. [10].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=2f639912cd64ca5fc9e55861200ab9a75cb4383ce9e9d675e72e4c066f7acf69&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Average wind power. Mexico (up), Latvia (down). Pictures are taken from Ref. [15].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=51d5b3ea0498cc2f73ee43aa0def3cbb6828f6703d5b10530773a8468ce8d103&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Taken from the study by Baseer et al.[3].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKFSMUWIIF%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T125659Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDsaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCID6%2BC4fd%2FM7dFmOsGfZMfE3D4ks34pk1dc9gCjmod%2F0TAiEAx6T2Fg9SGB48Dr%2FNSdjRJssg1buZpfCBYNK0x3Iqfu0quwUIBBACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDK2y4nW7QM6bfbPjAiqYBe0ETDq8Eo3IUkhC3WTiSzBpPdr9m4aeRYU%2FPt9ej1vCoTYUVa2%2FJYmv1HFH66h%2FUBiJ2YvtdfruD%2F4DWBMTStTZgB7cCMvsVKmYVMH%2FsG%2Bvu4iAdHs8IcWudaLG1f3na9RuOu%2FXZDjjzCe6E%2BT9YwcnR59minwllJY0TLIpBPjMLiBmYukoVOe1jHoBfqaUMuXs%2B7fET5g72NDjmgvEqFhQKQDJxDoero5CuKpfG749pVqnIHT9VPWHNZJqPQTlp91URY3QTI%2FpkUPzRI0NMQdDPr5sW3m1yApzJxUP1Ilj3d%2BH1o0HBrp3HhhizaKhxXcRhgga9OCaNyPo45VxThMQQ5%2FTs%2B26%2BFf24r3cmN1Hy4l6h04xxSbRCMIMI8HyT69P1d9h6B5amJzkFNKi59RhX15tlmOa7vXZb0MyjOaRsOeS228iHgNP9Fe9tyt8SGzCw31iHwW5YjX1Cfd69lJWpXM%2Bt7f6naySCci3wrGEmKu11EkTH0%2Fg6yIsrZaacMSKyu8uuWmpHn9g62xGJhbek%2FPAw9KzSWVbWV0PJGxtqJ%2FLgOnK%2FEEyjKiDpoR0pDsOI%2BUWhjzEBF%2FvxAGa9NXnv8vnC7s0I9UDO5AS4%2Fuuitasll4A32S5DhGruFRkXMaGxPHwiUNCIMAiqqKuHc%2FkHeJtfjHscBo1Lzfg%2FIRauFR9%2BELekaLUwxZSlwLPbtcKtrPrbAxhziOqe3RfNes5%2B32DwBIC05WPCZhN2JbFzh6WuhvDJUluXLTQalDU2GujLRFJul6mKmb2v2EHqOrioNwWLVi%2BiUeL7NMhhgRL7%2F10P361AO8KS8nF2YMasDxPYe6oCkk8rXiYTYOuKIHrZ56LggCkzEmrA9DrOj36XPJCFRX85rMwgIDqzQY6sQEBIWIrkwcRhPuqD5vsbJe%2Fj94z4Sebk76tqQsGz4LbxzxK0nXUnM28%2FjwapT6%2Bn4bvuPa%2FOjn%2FqvR%2Bj3nYfo2oXN3tW7ie6VWZNpxAQrx2cSa%2Bg32YuvU9%2B4j96aWV6OE%2Fcf5myJIiAp5h5ZmQAdgpaE2Ir0uqcidYiZ9F1rolsopRAX3oOadC26RR6QpbW1SGoa1ozHcR%2F%2Bin26QrfK7KUfqiAmohhoTcmB9Ofp1eXo4%3D&X-Amz-Signature=68f8f08bbef6d1efcafbc7d4a785a613d089b4fa826040c235ed1e498be9c815&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
© 2024 Vladimirs Vorohobovs, published by ŁUKASIEWICZ RESEARCH NETWORK – INSTITUTE OF AVIATION
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.