Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
![Wind speed distribution for different K. Taken from [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c9fc9288b7d5219fdf613e69e74c2e291e07bcf535fc66e279c4c0d0220fa76b&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 5.
![Taken from Ref. [19]. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/projects/hazard/img/ttor9599.gif](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=79757b401dae84adfbd954090633c6ddcc0c58bfe9ff27ff40d84544b6a3f490&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 6.
![Seif dune (barkhans) is a consequence of uneven wind on a scale of hundreds of meters. Image from Ref. [10].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=22710480291b90199529943cefbcc19585b4beb10d31304181199098eb91d7a0&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 7.
![Average wind power. Mexico (up), Latvia (down). Pictures are taken from Ref. [15].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=2a87b3613680e073577f8c45d44aea1e8d9374e33d3237f4e904d6faadcdc1b2&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
Fig. 8.
![Taken from the study by Baseer et al.[3].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=628fcba1eb840f054f73f77ca01707d32f8532c9b5f576986c024a5c7c74617d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)



![Wind speed distribution for different K. Taken from [12].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_004.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=c9fc9288b7d5219fdf613e69e74c2e291e07bcf535fc66e279c4c0d0220fa76b&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Taken from Ref. [19]. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/projects/hazard/img/ttor9599.gif](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_005.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=79757b401dae84adfbd954090633c6ddcc0c58bfe9ff27ff40d84544b6a3f490&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Seif dune (barkhans) is a consequence of uneven wind on a scale of hundreds of meters. Image from Ref. [10].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_006.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=22710480291b90199529943cefbcc19585b4beb10d31304181199098eb91d7a0&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Average wind power. Mexico (up), Latvia (down). Pictures are taken from Ref. [15].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_007.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=2a87b3613680e073577f8c45d44aea1e8d9374e33d3237f4e904d6faadcdc1b2&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
![Taken from the study by Baseer et al.[3].](https://sciendo-parsed.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/65f1cb26812d8816c96acf71/j_tar-2024-0006_fig_008.jpg?X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Content-Sha256=UNSIGNED-PAYLOAD&X-Amz-Credential=ASIA6AP2G7AKE2GROF66%2F20260318%2Feu-central-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Date=20260318T113007Z&X-Amz-Expires=3600&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEDcaDGV1LWNlbnRyYWwtMSJHMEUCIGRNgOA3PfTGPKrXQynz5CcIL9afjHQQY2L%2BL2cS9gJRAiEAqNOxZCJ6Y6RtTpCGwz12yVTIL7avFvfhy2mwePQZJxkqvQUIABACGgw5NjMxMzQyODk5NDAiDFAw2SfRZGuKVDtgCCqaBbrUZqBIeNGO1%2FsJvxRhqZHr8r8eVndTQQt%2Facj1LCQLdFE3gOM6C%2BamRSXFDrMLwwpTV9jZrSTnbEo45lMS0A3NrTmL3N0xdzZEnc81cBWmulNkefdQvggZHQpwNN7Ld9mOXwPNL%2B3fXpb%2B9fTRKnmBDnvy0qpSnTILUmBl7oIXa%2FEKbXDBU4%2FbXtKF5qQDcAMbBhefWHcntDG1Lrn1JkKSksvtZuwnfAgHXE1QeVGmN3sTkd6Juee782Q5C1IwE6%2FqoImQVuO4Ia20Y3oEQQek7tHh4XCRPCGrNMdyuP6Yb6lQu2I8PjlB4fWznWK%2BxMaosQqRbxpzOMbgYEhMea0Ml7g8K%2FgP7EQaU33ghm%2BY3mGcUBdJXdVCBqS1Au5ROsoyEbR8PwKrwT2nYNqwHzysWm8yHZ5g4hPQmO8i%2BP0nM9ZQxiBn72x%2FKpviwDSr0Z58DXdnsMasB7IFvkC6%2F9Qph3i4EnzWWISMKy2vj4GA%2BEUzMmemyXEh8uiorBOnQXkMOte4%2BRtMbZ9fw2eBEaG7E1NIjiZHyqNAih0OBq%2FBstDhjQ%2BZYn2BC%2F750jiYcJhZkg9u00Vu2Ts3%2FJqm%2FrHVf%2FXQsdLXD7J4FiEwMNTz7GVVRfwfQGnqr8A09Z%2BYWcY23%2BrCCCwBTApqTbnAz4SLm5OXm%2BQ8irVm%2BfN6joYvrSErmh9f2N%2BwKZkNUyf%2BVwzmkfL3qTEFZTDvIhH4WVgp1b3QTDAVJS3pMplNB2L5C%2FvPHGNXbSsPRnlRhCia5Vji%2F6EvFy67Ro0higOldRWWU2Re%2BX%2B00i9vo%2Bk5eI%2FGlwfNrSTytoTt0cKE483gIjqwMchUC8Num%2B5Mgc9yAFedueKgJ7y9EbeX%2BeBJGZ1sCseRvFG0%2BX9hQzCBo%2BnNBjqxAfNzeN19Hwe1FJpn5nok%2BkxlGifui6yvhD6u%2BPucfIdaSlWIMnKRocwIlyz4L7LTzg9DzGOCvKqbhFemWPzQ0OW8kJRHyR3ZCya%2BQjC1hQbcdW%2BfBUeNp87GRpRZCUw8U93TInVCUZNMyHWkXB3FFeZUS%2BXd5XI1vSubf5NoMBzEgGUBbztlNoyl2UZdYmY4gEpB04SEnWhRs8VF53mS%2B7DPA%2BBULK6HRA9vk67TWzCMVA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Signature=628fcba1eb840f054f73f77ca01707d32f8532c9b5f576986c024a5c7c74617d&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&x-amz-checksum-mode=ENABLED&x-id=GetObject)
© 2024 Vladimirs Vorohobovs, published by ŁUKASIEWICZ RESEARCH NETWORK – INSTITUTE OF AVIATION
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.