Assessment of the Usefulness of e-LNG, e-LPG, and Other Alternative Marine Fuels in the Baltic Sea Region Based on OECD Short-Term Evaluation Criteria
References
- Solakivi T., Paimander A., Ojala L., Ristola J. Cost competitiveness of alternative maritime fuels in the new regulatory framework. Transport Research Part D: Transport and Environment 2022:113:103500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2022.103500
- Smith J. R., Mastorakos E. A Systems-Level Study of Ammonia and Hydrogen for Maritime Transport. Maritime Transport Research 2023:5:100099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.martra.2023.100099
- Soler A., Dekeyser J., Ramasary A., Gordillo V., Lilley W., Schmidt P., Weindorf W., Raksha T., Failer S., Astono Y., Houghton T., Dell’Orco S., Feroz A. E-Fuels: A techno-economic assessment of European domestic production and imports towards 2050 – Update. Concawe Report No. 4/24, March 2024. [Online]. [Accessed 26.05.2025]. Available: https://www.concawe.eu/wp-content/uploads/Rpt_24-4-1.pdf
- OECD. Evaluation Criteria. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/development-co-operation-evaluation-and-effectiveness/evaluation-criteria.html
- International Maritime Organization (IMO). Study on the Readiness and Availability of Low- and Zero-Carbon Ship Technology and Marine Fuels. Future Fuels and Technology for Low- and Zero-Carbon Shipping Project (FFT Project), Report No. 2022-19, April 2023. [Online]. [Accessed 26.05.2025]. Available: https://greenvoyage2050.imo.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Readiness-of-Low-Zero-Carbon-Marine-Fuels-Technology-Full-Report-v1.pdf
- Lloyd’s Register. Fuel for thought: LNG report. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available: https://www.lr.org/en/knowledge/research-reports/2025/fuel-for-thought-lng-report/
- Ramsay W., Fridell E., Michan M. Maritime Energy Transition: Future Fuels and Future Emissions. Journal of Marine Science and Application 2023:22:681–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11804-023-00369-z
- ClassNK. ClassNK Alternative Fuels Insight. Version 2.2, February 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://futurefuels.imo.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ClassNKAlternativeFuelsInsight_e.pdf
- Gu Y., Wang Y., Iris Ç. Integrated green technology adoption, ship speed optimization and slot management for shipping alliance under emission limits and uncertain fuel prices. Journal of Cleaner Production 2025:459:141527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.144939
- Google LLC. (2025). Google Cloud Platform. [Online]. [Accessed 06.01.2025]. Available: https://cloud.google.com
- OpenAI ChatGPT different language model versions. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://chatgpt.com/
- Wikishipia Ltd. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 19.02.2025]. Available: https://www.shiplocation.com/
- National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 26.02.2025]. Available: https://msi.nga.mil/Publications/WPI
- Statista. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 24.04.2025]. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1023550/russia-cargo-throughput-by-port/
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 24.04.2025]. Available: https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/economic_diplomacy/vnesneekonomiceskie-svazi-sub-ektov-rossijskoj-federacii/1857406/
- Google LLC. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://about.google/brand-resource-center/guidance/media/
- Friman E. Transport and Logistics in the Baltic Sea Region by 2030: A Foresight Study. August 2019. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.31747.66084
- OpenStreetMap 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 03.11.2025]. Available: https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=7/56.895/24.608
- Marinet Ltd. 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 06.11.2025]. Available: https://www.maritime-database.com/
- AISHub 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 06.11.2025]. Available: https://www.aishub.net/vessels
- Jalkanen J.-P., Majamäki E., Heikkilä M., Johansson L. Emissions from Baltic Sea shipping in 2022. HELCOM Baltic Sea Environment Fact Sheets, December 2023. [Online]. [Accessed 19.10.2025]. Available: https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/BSEFS-Emissions-from-Baltic-Sea-Shipping-in-2022-2023-1.pdf
- Baltic LINes. Shipping in the Baltic Sea – Past, Present and Future Developments Relevant for Maritime Spatial Planning. Hamburg: Baltic LINes Project Report I, 20 Dec 2016. [Online]. [Accessed 16.10.2025]. Available: https://vasab.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Baltic-LINes-Shipping_Report-20122016.pdf
- European Commission. Maritime transport of goods – annual data. [Online]. [Accessed 06.01.2025]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Maritime_transport_of_goods_-_annual_data
- Serry A. Port Reorganisation Revealing East-West Differentiation in the Baltic Sea Region. Regional Formation and Development Studies 2021:35(3):101–110. https://doi.org/10.15181/rfds.v35i3.2276
- Eurostat. Gross weight of goods handled in all ports by direction [Online]. [Accessed: 16.10.2025]. Available: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/MAR_GO_AA/default/table?lang=en
- The European Commission. Decarbonizing maritime transport – FuelEU Maritime, [Online]. [Accessed 06.01.25]. Available: https://transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-modes/maritime/decarbonising-maritime-transport-fueleu-maritime_en
- Eurostat. Vessels arriving in the main ports by type and size of vessels – quarterly data. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available:https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/mar_tf_qm/default/table?lang=en&category =mar.mar_v
- European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). Synthetic Fuels for Shipping. EMSA Report No. 5349, November 2024. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available: https://www.emsa.europa.eu/publications/reports/item/5349-synthetic-fuels-for-shipping.html
- Johansson L., Jalkanen J.-P. Emissions from Baltic Sea shipping in 2014. HELCOM Baltic Sea Environment Fact Sheets, August 2019. [Online]. [Accessed 19.10.2025]. Available: https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/BSEFS_Emissions-from-Baltic-Sea-shipping-in-2015.pdf
- World LPG Association. LPG Bunkering: Guide for LPG Marine Fuel Supply. 2019. [Online]. [Accessed 14.10.2025]. Available: https://www.worldliquidgas.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/LPG-Bunkering-2019.pdf
- World LPG Association. LPG for Marine Engines: The Marine Alternative Fuel. 2021. [Online]. [Accessed 19.05.2025]. Available: https://www.worldliquidgas.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/LPG-for-Marine-Engines-2021-compressed.pdf
- Roß A., Lange K. An Appraisal of the Northern European LNG Bunker Ship Fleet. In: Dynamics in Logistics (LDIC 2022). Lecture Notes in Logistics. Springer, 2022:168–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05359-7_14
- HELCOM. Alternative fuels for shipping in the Baltic Sea region. Helsinki Commission, March 2019. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HELCOM-EnviSUM-Alternative-fuels-for-shipping.pdf
- Sirius Shipping tanker shipping company webpage [Online]. [Accessed 21.03.2025]. Available: https://www.siriusshipping.eu/ship/lngf-seagas/
- Korea Gas Corporation (KOGAS). LNG Unit Converter. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://www.kogas.or.kr/site/eng/1040202000000
- Sirius Shipping tanker shipping company webpage [Online]. [Accessed 21.03.2025]. Available: https://www.siriusshipping.eu/ship/mt-coralius/
- SEA-DISTANCES.ORG webpage [Online]. [Accessed 10.11.2025]. Available: https://sea-distances.org/
- Park N. K., Park S. K. A Study on the Estimation of Facilities in LNG Bunkering Terminal by Simulation—Busan Port Case. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2019:7(10):354. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse7100354
- Global Maritime Hub, Shipping, Trade and Maritime Market Analysis [Online] [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://globalmaritimehub.com/
- Global HQ European Energy A/S, About Kassø. [Online] [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://europeanenergy.com/kasso/
- MITSUI & CO., LTD. Pioneering the Power-to-X Future: Launch of the World's First Commercial e-Methanol Plant. [Online]. [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://www.mitsui.com/solution/en/contents/solutions/lowc-fuel/kasso-e-methanol-en
- MAN Energy Solutions. MAN B&W ME-LGIM dual-fuel engines enable carbon-neutral transportation. [Online] [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://www.man-es.com/discover/antonia-maersk-methanol-ship
- Tønder Biogas A/S. [Online] [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://www.tbg.dk/en/
- DNV. “AMMONIA IN SHIPPING Tracing the emergence of a new fuel” white paper. October 2025. [Online]. [Accessed 30.10.2025]. Available: https://www.dnv.com/publications/ammonia-in-shipping-white-paper/
- Transport & Environment. How costly e-fuels are threatening the EU’s climate targets. March 2023. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://te-cdn.ams3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/files/2023_03_DE_e-fuel_paper.pdf
- Lindstad E., Lagemann B., Rialland A., Gamlem G. M., Valland A. Reduction of maritime GHG emissions and the potential role of E-fuels. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 2021:101:103075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.103075
- World LPG Association. LPG and the Global Energy Transition. 2015. [Online]. [Accessed 17.10.2025]. Available: https://www.worldliquidgas.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/LPG-and-the-Global-Energy-Transition.pdf
- IRENA. Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: Scaling up Electrolysers to Meet the 1.5⁰C Climate Goal, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, 2020. [Online]. [Accessed 03.11.2025]. Available: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Dec/IRENA_Green_hydrogen_cost_2020.pdf
- Uekert T., Wikoff H. M., Badgett A. Electrolyzer and Fuel Cell Recycling for a Circular Hydrogen Economy. Advanced Sustainable Systems Journal 2023:8(4):2300449. https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202300449
- S&P Global Commodity Insights. Platts Global Bunker Fuel Cost Calculator. [Online]. [Accessed 12.05.2025]. Available: https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/PlattsContent/_assets/_files/downloads/053024-interactive-platts-global-bunker-fuel-cost-calculator.html
- European Commission. The EU ETS and MRV Maritime: General guidance for shipping companies. Guidance Document No. 1, Updated Version, 5 November 2024. Directorate-General for Climate Action, Unit B.4 – Mobility (II): Air, Rail, Water and Intermodal Policy. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/document/download/31875b4f-39b9-4cde-a4e2-fbb8f65ee703_en?filename=policy_transport_shipping_gd1_maritime_en.pdf
- European Commission. Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2024/2493 of 23 September 2024 amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/2066 as regards updating the monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions pursuant to Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official Journal of the European Union 2024:L 2493.
- Nelissen D., Kleijn A., Faber J. FuelEU Maritime and EU ETS. CE Delft Report, February 2022. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available: https://cedelft.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/02/CE_Delft_210396_FuelEU_Maritime_and_EU_ETS_Def_February-2022.pdf
- European Parliament and Council. Regulation (EU) 2023/1805 of 13 September 2023 on the use of renewable and low-carbon fuels in maritime transport, and amending Directive 2009/16/EC. Official Journal of the European Union 2023:L 234.
- European Central Bank. Euro foreign exchange reference rates: US dollar (USD). [Online]. [Accessed 18.10.2025]. Available: https://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/policy_and_exchange_rates/euro_reference_exchange_rates/html/eurofxref-graph-usd.en.html
- DNV. FuelEU Maritime: Requirements, compliance strategies, and commercial impacts. White Paper, December 2024. [Online]. [Accessed 20.10.2025]. Available: https://www.dnv.com/maritime/publications/fueleu-maritime-white-paper-download
- Skob Y., Yakovlev S., Pichugina O., Kalinichenko M., Kartashov O. Numerical Evaluation of Harmful Consequences after Accidental Explosion at a Hydrogen Filling Station. Environmental and Climate Technologies 2024:28(1):181–194. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2024-0015
- Kalnina A., Romagnoli F., Feofilovs M., Mazure G. Blockchain Applications in Renewable Energy: Analytic Hierarchy Process-Based Survey Results. Environmental and Climate Technologies 2024:28(1):589–602. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2024-0046
- Lauka D., Vicmane L. K., Bohvalovs G., Dzenajavičienė E. F., Vītoliņš V., Rošā M., Cenian A., Blumberga D. Modeling Energy Transition in Baltic Municipalities. Environmental and Climate technologies 2025:29(1):641–657. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2025-0044
- Hajli K., Rönnqvist M., Dadouchi C., Audy J. F., Cordeau J. F., Warya G., Ngo T. A fuel consumption prediction model for ships based on historical voyages and meteorological data. Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology 2024:23(6). https://doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2024.2371192
Language: English
Page range: 251 - 280
Submitted on: Jan 5, 2026
Accepted on: Feb 26, 2026
Published on: May 12, 2026
Published by: Riga Technical University
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: Volume open
Keywords:
Related subjects:
© 2026 Imants Aleksandrovs, Kristīne Lazdoviča, Rinalds Zvejnieks, Valdez Banda Osiris, Jānis Brūnavs, published by Riga Technical University
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.