On my way to school. Exploring children’s spatial perception and commuting modes through mental sketches
By: Kamil Nieścioruk
References
- Alexander, J., Cocks, M. L., & Shackleton, C. (2015). The landscape of childhood: Play and place as tools to understanding children’s enviromental use and perceptions. Human Ecology, 43, 467–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-015-9755-z
- Anderson, J. M., & Vasconcellos, R. (1995). Maps for and by children: Possible contributions by cartographers. Proceedings of the 17th International Cartographic Conference, Barcelona, Spain, 3–9 September, 384–392.
- Andrà, C., Brunetto, D., & Pini, A. (2020). Commentary on anonymous versus non-anonymous surveys. In C. Andrà, D. Brunetto, F. Martignone (Eds.), Theorizing and Measuring Affect in Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp. 223–227). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50526-4_23
- Andrews, L. (1994). Ordering space in Renaissance times: position and meaning in continuous narration. Word & Image, 10(1), 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/02666286.1994.10435505
- Bell, S., & Iong, J. (2009). Sketch mapping and geographic knowledge: What role for drawing ability? Proceedings of the Spatial Knowledge and Information Canada Conference, Fernie, Canada, 19–22 February, Volume 2, 19–24.
- Binimelis Sebastián, J., Ordinas Garau, A., & Ruiz Pérez, M. (2023). Views of the islands: The geographical perception of the Balearic Islands among graduate students in primary education. Island Studies Journal, 18(1), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.24043/isj.400
- Bláha, J. D, & Nováček, A. (2016). How central Europe is perceived and delimited. Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschaft, 158, 193–214. https://doi.org/10.1553/moegg158s193
- Castellar, S. M. V., & Jordão, B. G. F. (2021). Spatial thinking in cartography teaching for schoolchildren. International Journal of Cartography, 7(3), 304–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/23729333.2021.1969716
- Chiodo, J. J. (1993). Mental maps: Preservice teachers’ awareness of the world. The Journal of Geography, 92(3), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221349308979633
- Costa, M., & Bonetti, L. (2018). Geometrical distortions in geographical cognitive maps. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 55, 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.12.004
- Didelon-Loiseau, C., de Ruffray, S., & Lambert, N. (2018). Mental maps of global regions: Identifying and characterizing “hard” and “soft” regions. Journal of Cultural Geography, 35(2), 210–229. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873631.2018.1426950
- Djadik, M., & Krajňáková, L. (2025). Teachers’ perspectives on map-making in geography lessons. Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 60(2), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.3138/cart-2024-0035
- Dragan, A., Crețan, R., & Triponescu, A. (2025). Mental maps, generational insights and symbols of urban spaces in a Romanian context. GeoJournal, 90, Article 64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11308-6
- Fusco, C., Moola, F., Faulkner, G., Buliung, R., & Richichi, V. (2012). Toward an understanding of children’s perceptions of their transport geographies: (non)active school travel and visual representations of the built environment. Journal of Transport Geography, 20(1), 62–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.07.001
- Gagnier, K. M., Holochwost, S. J., & Fisher, K. R. (2021). Spatial thinking in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: Elementary teachers’ beliefs, perceptions, and self-efficacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(1), 95–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21722
- García-Mira, R., & Goluboff, M. (2005). The perception of urban space from two different viewpoints: Pedestrians and automobile passengers. In R. García-Mira, D. L. Uzzell, J. E. Real & J. Romay (Eds.), Housing, space and quality of life (pp. 7–16). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351156363-2
- Geoportal.gov.pl. (n.d.) Data. https://www.geoportal.gov.pl/en/data/
- Gould, P. (1966). On mental maps. University of Michigan.
- Güroğlu Ağdaş, M. (2020). The kind of transportation used between home and school in children and perception of urban space: Case of Kirklareli. Proceedings of the International Conference of Contemporary Affairs in Architecture and Urbanism- ICCAUA, Antalya, Turkey, 6–8 May, 109–120. https://doi.org/10.38027/N112020ICCAUA316279
- Hagge, P. D. (2023). Ranking Arkansas: Student-surveyed mental maps and preference mapping of Arkansas Counties, 2018-2021. Papers in Applied Geography, 10(1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/23754931.2023.2256748
- Hátlová, K., & Hanus, M. (2020). A systematic review into factors influencing sketch map quality. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(4), 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9040271
- Holmén, J. (2020). Perception of the Baltic Sea and Mediterranean regions among secondary school students. Journal of Baltic Studies, 51(4), 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2020.1810723
- Januškienė, E., & Kamičaitytė, J. (2024). Landscape perception of children under the age of 12 living in different settings: A systematic review. Architecture and Urban Planning, 20(1), 80–87. https://doi.org/10.2478/aup-2024-0007
- Joshi, M. S., MacLean, M, & Carter, W. (1999). Children’s journey to school: Spatial skills, knowledge and perception of the environment. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17(1), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151099165195
- Kaisto, V., & Brednikova, O. (2019). Lakes, presidents and shopping on mental maps: Children’s perceptions of the Finnish–Russian border and the borderland. Fennia –International Journal of Geography, 197(1), 58–76. https://doi.org/10.11143/fennia.73208
- Kitchin, R. (1994). Cognitive maps: What are they and why study them? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 14(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80194-X
- Kołodyńska-Gawrysiak, R. & Chabudziński, Ł. (2012). Morphometric features and distribution of closed depressions on the Nałęczów Plateau (Lublin Upland, SE Poland). Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Sklodowska sectio B – Geographia Geologia Mineralogia et Petrographia, 67(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10066-012-0003-x
- Krukar, J., Münzer, S., Lörch, L., Anacta, V. J., Fuest, S., & Schwering, A. (2018). Distinguishing sketch map types: A flexible feature-based classification. Proceedings of the Spatial Cognition 2018, Tübingen, Germany, 5–8 September, 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96385-3_19
- Lee, J., & Shepley, M. M. (2020). College campuses and student walkability: Assessing the impact of smartphone use on student perception and evaluation of urban campus routes. Sustainability, 12(23), Article 9986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239986
- Lehman-Frisch, S., Authier, J.-Y., & Dufaux, F. (2012). ‘Draw me your neighbourhood’: A gentrified Paris neighbourhood through its children’s eyes, Children’s Geographies, 10(1), 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2011.638175
- Li, Ch., & Seymour, M. (2019). Children’s perceptions of neighbourhood environments for walking and outdoor play. Landscape Research, 44(4), 430–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2018.1460336
- Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. The M.I.T. Press.
- Maruszczak, H. (1973). Erozja wąwozowa we wschodniej części pasa wyżyn południowopolskich. Zeszyty Problemowe Postępów Nauk Rolniczych, 151, 15–30.
- Nieścioruk, K. (2016). The use of mental and sketch maps as a tool to evaluate cartography teaching effectiveness. The Cartographic Journal, 53(2), 186–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/00087041.2015.1108064
- Nieścioruk, K. (2019). Cartographic delimitation of the city centre using mental sketches. The Cartographic Journal, 56(4), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/00087041.2018.1547472
- Nieścioruk, K. (2023). Evaluating individual cartographic skills using mental sketches, Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 50(3), 306–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2023.2176929
- Öcal, A. (2011). Where am I? Elementary school students’ representation and location of space. Energy Education Science and Technology Part B: Social and Educational Studies, 3(3), 201–210. OpenStreetMap. (n.d.). https://www.openstreetmap.org/
- Padło, T., Struś, P., & Gil, A. (2021). Danube as a symbol of Europe. Perception of the river from varied geographical perspectives. Plos One, 16(12), Article e0260848. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260848
- Polinsky, N., Flynn, R., & Uttal, D. (2023). How children’s app play could facilitate spatial skill development. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 9(3), 228–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000360
- Rezaei, S., Askarizad, R., & Alborzi, F. (2020). Investigation of physical factors affecting the wayfinding of educational spaces children aged 7-12 years old in Rasht, North of Iran. International Journal of Pediatrics, 8(1), 10689–10704. https://doi.org/10.22038/ijp.2019.14063
- Šakaja, L. (2021). An axiological approach to mental maps: Croatian high-school students’ views of Europe. European Journal of Geography, 11(3), 56–75. https://doi.org/10.48088/ejg.l.sak.11.3.56.75
- Silva, C., Prandi, C., Ferreira, M., Nisi, V. & Nunes, N. J. (2019). See the World Through the Eyes of a Child: Learning from children’s cognitive maps for the design of child-targeted locative systems. Proceedings of the 2019 on Designing Interactive Systems Conference, San Diego, USA, 23-28 June, 763–776. https://doi.org/10.1145/3322276.3323700
- Smith, J. S., & Aranha, R. (2020). Cognitive mapping as a method to assess peoples’ attachment to place. Geographical Review, 112(1), 6–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00167428.2020.1774880
- Stea, D., & Blaut, J. M. (1973). Toward a developmental theory of spatial learning. In R. M. Downs & D. Stea (Eds.), Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior (pp. 51–62). Transaction Publishers.
- Subrahmanyam, K., & Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 13–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0193-3973(94)90004-3
- Swienton, H., Giordano, A., & Hagelman, R. R. (2023). What do children draw when asked to draw a map? Results of a mental map experiment. Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization, 58(3), 116–143. https://doi.org/10.3138/cart-2022-0016
- Szombara, S. (2021). Using different mapping techniques and GIS programs in the analysis and visualisation of mental maps. Polish Cartographical Review, 53(1), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.2478/pcr-2021-0008
- Thommen, E., Avelar, S., Sapin, V. Z., Perrenoud, S., & Malatesta, D. (2010). Mapping the journey from home to school: a study on children’s representation of space. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 19(3), 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/10382046.2010.496975
- Wilson, K., Clark, A. F., & Gilliland, J. A. (2018). Understanding child and parent perceptions of barriers influencing children’s active school travel. BMC Public Health, 18, Article 1053. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5874-y
- Zaga, M., & Yaar Waisel, T. (2023). Mapping the Middle East: Israeli student’s geographical knowledge and perceptions. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 39(5), 931–954. https://doi.org/10.1080/08865655.2023.2255191
Language: English
Page range: 27 - 42
Submitted on: Aug 28, 2025
Accepted on: Nov 24, 2025
Published on: Apr 16, 2026
Published by: Polish Geographical Society, Cartographic Division
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: Volume open
Related subjects:
© 2026 Kamil Nieścioruk, published by Polish Geographical Society, Cartographic Division
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.