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Details of experts who reviewed the study questionnaire for face validity
| Id. | Qualification (major) | Background experience | Years of experience | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| E.1 | Bachelor’s Degree in Engineering | Master Planning and Engineering Management | 21 years | Projects Manager |
| E.2 | Ph.D. in Civil Engineering ‘Environmental, Water Resources Management’ | Project Management | 19 years | Head of Mechanical Engineering department |
Respondent profile
| Characteristic | Categories | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Job title | Project manager | 29 | 34.5 |
| Senior engineer | 21 | 25.0 | |
| Procurement manager | 14 | 16.7 | |
| Project director | 10 | 11.9 | |
| Construction manager | 7 | 8.3 | |
| Production manager | 1 | 1.2 | |
| Contracting manager | 1 | 1.2 | |
| Assistant head | 1 | 1.2 | |
| Academic qualification | Diploma | 2 | 2.4 |
| Bachelor’s degree | 70 | 83.3 | |
| Master’s degree | 12 | 14.3 | |
| Years of experience | <5 years | 3 | 3.6 |
| 5 years to <10 years | 27 | 32.1 | |
| 10 years to <15 years | 44 | 52.4 | |
| 15 years to <20 years | 7 | 8.3 | |
| 20 years to <25 years | 0 | 0.0 | |
| >25 years | 3 | 3.6 | |
| Type of project involved | Building | 9 | 10.7 |
| Industrial | 1 | 1.2 | |
| Infrastructure | 1 | 1.2 | |
| Utilities | 4 | 4.8 | |
| Special structures | 4 | 4.8 | |
| At least two combinations of the above projects | 65 | 77.4 | |
| Types of contracts | Lump-sum contract | 9 | 10.7 |
| Unit cost contract | 25 | 29.8 | |
| Lump sum contract & unit cost contract | 48 | 57.1 | |
| Lump sum contract & unit cost contract & other | 2 | 2.4 | |
| Roles in the projects involved in | Project manager | 11 | 13.0 |
| Project engineer | 6 | 7.1 | |
| Cost controller | 0 | 0.0 | |
| Quality controller | 5 | 6.0 | |
| Procurement manager | 5 | 6.0 | |
| Combination of two roles | 42 | 50.0 | |
| Combination of three roles | 15 | 17.9 | |
| Average project size | <50 million SAR | 11 | 13.1 |
| 50 to <100 million SAR | 38 | 45.2 | |
| 100 to <150 million SAR | 27 | 32.1 | |
| 150 to <200 million SAR | 4 | 4.8 | |
| 200 to <250 million SAR | 1 | 1.2 | |
| 250 million SAR or more | 3 | 3.6 |
Discriminant validity analysis results for the barriers construct
| Organisational | Industrial | Human | Technical | Legal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Organisational | 0.750 | ||||
| Industrial | 0.492 | 0.775 | |||
| Human | 0.583 | 0.554 | 0.758 | ||
| Technical | 0.386 | 0.428 | 0.506 | 0.766 | |
| Legal | 0.463 | 0.392 | 0.481 | 0.492 | 0.771 |
CFA results for validity and reliability assessment of the drivers’ construct
| Factor loading | AVE | Cronbach’s alpha | CR | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subscale 1: Transparency and traceability | ||||
| TT1 Implementing blockchain technology will enhance transparency in project management practices in the construction industry. | 0.713 | 0.576 | 0.892 | 0.890 |
| TT2 Blockchain technology will improve the visibility of project documentation across stakeholders in the construction industry. | 0.817 | |||
| TT3 I believe that blockchain technology will increase transparency in the construction industry. | 0.757 | |||
| TT4 Blockchain technology will enable better tracking of construction materials and components throughout the supply chain. | 0.826 | |||
| TT5 Blockchain technology is expected to enhance traceability of materials from sourcing to installation in the construction industry. | 0.718 | |||
| TT6 Implementing blockchain technology will improve the ability to trace the origin and history of construction materials. | 0.712 | |||
| Subscale 2: Data security | ||||
| DS1 Blockchain technology offers a more secure way to store and share construction-related data. | 0.756 | 0.604 | 0.823 | 0.820 |
| DS2 Blockchain technology will provide better protection against data breaches in construction projects. | 0.814 | |||
| DS3 Blockchain technology will enhance the security of sensitive construction data. | 0.759 | |||
| Subscale 3: Smart contracts | ||||
| SC1 The adoption of smart contracts using blockchain technology will streamline contract management processes in construction projects. | 0.756 | 0.621 | 0.835 | 0.831 |
| SC2 Smart contracts will improve the efficiency and reliability of contractual agreements in construction. | 0.837 | |||
| SC3 Smart contracts enabled by blockchain technology will facilitate automated execution of project milestones and payments in the construction industry. | 0.768 | |||
| Subscale 4: Decentralisation | ||||
| DC1 Decentralising project management through blockchain technology will lead to more efficient decision-making processes in the construction industry. | 0.886 | 0.658 | 0.858 | 0.852 |
| DC2 Decentralisation using blockchain technology will empower stakeholders to have greater control over project outcomes in the construction industry. | 0.784 | |||
| DC3 Implementing blockchain technology will decentralise authority and promote collaboration among project stakeholders in the construction industry. | 0.757 | |||
| Subscale 5: Interoperability | ||||
| IO1 It is important for blockchain platforms used in construction to be interoperable with existing software systems in the construction industry. | 0.892 | 0.703 | 0.879 | 0.876 |
| IO2 Blockchain technology has the ability to integrate seamlessly with other construction management tools. | 0.795 | |||
| IO3 Interoperability between blockchain platforms and construction software is crucial for achieving project goals. | 0.826 | |||
| Subscale 6: Cost savings | ||||
| CS1 Implementing blockchain technology will result in cost savings by reducing administrative overhead in the construction industry. | 0.758 | 0.623 | 0.835 | 0.832 |
| CS2 Blockchain technology is expected to reduce transaction costs associated with construction projects in the construction industry. | 0.794 | |||
| CS3 Blockchain technology will lead to overall cost savings in construction projects in the construction industry. | 0.815 | |||
| Subscale 7: Stakeholder engagement | ||||
| SE1 Stakeholders in the construction industry are likely to embrace the use of blockchain technology. | 0.773 | 0.685 | 0.868 | 0.867 |
| SE2 Contractors, suppliers and clients will see the benefits of adopting blockchain technology. | 0.835 | |||
| SE3 Stakeholders strongly support implementing blockchain technology in construction projects. | 0.872 | |||
| Subscale 8: Regulatory compliance | ||||
| RC1 Blockchain technology will facilitate compliance with regulatory requirements and standards in the construction industry. | 0.891 | 0.724 | 0.888 | 0.887 |
| RC2 Blockchain technology will simplify regulatory reporting and documentation processes in the construction industry. | 0.852 | |||
| RC3 Implementing blockchain technology will ensure adherence to construction industry regulations and standards. | 0.807 | |||
| Subscale 9: Innovation potential | ||||
| IP1 Blockchain technology has the potential to drive innovation and transformation in the construction industry. | 0.778 | 0.669 | 0.860 | 0.858 |
| IP2 Blockchain technology will enable new ways of approaching construction project management. | 0.849 | |||
| IP3 There are significant opportunities for innovation in the construction industry through the adoption of blockchain technology. | 0.826 | |||
Discriminant validity analysis results for the drivers’ construct
| TT | DS | SC | DC | IO | CS | SE | RC | IP | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TT | 0.759 | ||||||||
| DS | 0.465 | 0.777 | |||||||
| SC | 0.520 | 0.551 | 0.788 | ||||||
| DC | 0.586 | 0.527 | 0.621 | 0.811 | |||||
| IO | 0.614 | 0.486 | 0.535 | 0.436 | 0.838 | ||||
| CS | 0.382 | 0.417 | 0.552 | 0.473 | 0.443 | 0.789 | |||
| SE | 0.438 | 0.449 | 0.481 | 0.393 | 0.382 | 0.322 | 0.828 | ||
| RC | 0.442 | 0.491 | 0.473 | 0.341 | 0.364 | 0.426 | 0.406 | 0.851 | |
| IP | 0.473 | 0.536 | 0.518 | 0.401 | 0.421 | 0.378 | 0.450 | 0.481 | 0.818 |
Summary of knowledge and awareness of BCT within the construction industry
| Items | Description | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Familiarity with BCT | Familiarity with the basic concepts of BCT | Azmi et al. (2022) and Gouda Mohamed et al. (2025) |
| Familiarity with BCT applications | Familiarity with BCT applications in improving transparency in construction projects | Kim et al. (2020) and Mohammed and Alharthi (2022) |
| Awareness of specific successful application of BCT | Awareness of specific successful applications of BCT in the construction industry | Chengyue et al. (2021), Mohammed and Alharthi (2022) and Gouda Mohamed et al. (2025) |
| Presenting BCT to others in the construction sector | Confidence on explaining the benefits of BCT to others in the construction sector | Chengyue et al. (2021) and Kim et al. (2020) |
| Impact of knowledge of BCT on construction project management | Confidence on increased knowledge of BCT could positively impact the efficiency of construction project management | Chengyue et al. (2021) and Gouda Mohamed et al. (2025) |
Summary of drivers to adopt BCT within the construction industry
| Categories | Drivers | Description | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Economic | Cost saving | Ability of BCT to reduce transaction costs associated with construction projects. | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) and Wang et al. (2020) |
| Increased profitability | No need for third-party costs | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | |
| Technological | Enhanced transparency | Implementing BCT enhances transparency in project management practices in the construction industry | Hultgren and Pajala (2018) and Waqar et al. (2024) |
| BCT enhances transparency in the construction industry | Hultgren and Pajala (2018) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | ||
| Enhanced traceability | BCT enables better tracking of construction materials and components throughout the supply chain | Wang et al. (2020) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | |
| BCT adoption enhances the traceability of materials from sourcing to installation in the construction industry | Hultgren and Pajala (2018) and Wang et al. (2020) | ||
| BCT adoption improves the ability to trace the origin and history of construction materials | Kim et al. (2020) and Wang et al. (2022) | ||
| Organisational | Data security | BCT adoption offers a more secure way to store and share construction-related data | Kim et al. (2020) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) |
| BCT provides better protection against data breaches in construction projects | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | ||
| BCT enhances data security within construction projects | Mahmudnia et al. (2022) | ||
| Smart contracts | Smart contracts using BCT streamline the contract management process in construction projects | Kamel et al. (2023) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | |
| Smart contracts improve the efficiency and reliability of contractual agreements in construction projects | Cheng and Chong (2022), Kamel et al. (2023) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | ||
| Decentralisation | Decentralising project management through BCT leads to more efficient decision-making processes in the construction industry | Kim et al. (2020) and Mahmudnia et al. (2022) | |
| Implementing BCT decentralises authority and promotes collaboration among project stakeholders in the construction industry | Kim et al. (2020), Li et al. (2022) and Wang et al. (2022) | ||
| Interoperability | Interoperability of BCT platforms with existing software systems in the construction industry | Kim et al. (2020), Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) and Olawumi et al. (2021) | |
| Interoperability between blockchain platforms and construction software for achieving project goals in the construction industry | Kim et al. (2020), Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) and Li et al. (2022) | ||
| Stakeholder engagement | Stakeholders’ awareness of the successful adoption of BCT in the construction industry | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | |
| Contractors, suppliers and clients benefit from adopting BCT in the construction industry | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | ||
| Strong stakeholders support implementing BCT in the construction industry | Mahmudnia et al. (2022) | ||
| Regulatory and government initiatives | Regulatory compliance | BCT adoption facilitates compliance with regulatory requirements and standards in the construction industry | Li et al. (2019, 2022) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) |
| BCT simplifies regulatory reporting and documentation processes in the construction industry | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021), Wang et al. (2020) and Wang et al. (2022) | ||
| Implementing BCT ensures adherence to regulations and standards in the construction industry | Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) and Wang et al. (2020, 2022) | ||
| Innovation Potential | BCT adoption has the potential to drive innovation and transformation in the construction industry | Mahmudnia et al. (2022) and Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) | |
| Opportunities for innovation in the construction industry through the adoption of BCT | Mahmudnia et al. (2022), Teisserenc and Sepasgozar (2021) and Wang et al. (2022) |
Means and standard deviations of the barriers construct
| Barriers construct | Mean | SD |
|---|---|---|
| Subscale 1: Organisational | ||
| O1 Overcoming the lack of top management support for adopting BCT in construction projects. | 3.85 | 0.53 |
| O2 Addressing resistance to change from traditional project management methods within the construction organisation. | 3.72 | 0.72 |
| O3 Securing adequate budget allocation for investing in blockchain initiatives in the construction industry. | 3.63 | 0.72 |
| O4 Shifting organisational culture to prioritise innovation and technological advancements, including blockchain in the construction industry. | 3.97 | 0.76 |
| O5 There is limited internal expertise and resources for implementing and managing blockchain solutions in construction projects. | 3.83 | 0.84 |
| O6 The reluctance of companies to invest in new technologies. | 3.52 | 0.86 |
| O7 Collaboration and communication with stakeholders from construction and other various industries. | 3.82 | 0.88 |
| Composite score of organisational subscale | 3.76 | 0.43 |
| Subscale 2: Industrial | ||
| I1 Competing effectively with other construction firms that have not yet adopted BCT. | 3.80 | 0.79 |
| I2 Maintaining a competitive advantage if blockchain adoption is delayed. | 3.83 | 0.89 |
| I3 Encouragement of clients or project owners to embrace blockchain solutions in construction projects. | 3.89 | 0.75 |
| I4 Establishing industry standards or guidelines for implementing BCT. | 4.01 | 0.78 |
| I5 Mitigating perceived risks associated with being an early adopter of blockchain in the construction sector. | 3.86 | 0.74 |
| Composite score of industrial subscale | 3.88 | 0.40 |
| Subscale 3: Human | ||
| H1 Addressing resistance from employees due to fear of job displacement or changes in job roles. | 4.03 | 0.79 |
| H2 Bridging the skills gap among the existing workforce regarding BCT. | 3.96 | 0.66 |
| H3 Improving awareness and understanding of blockchain concepts and applications among employees. | 3.90 | 0.70 |
| H4 Fostering a culture of innovation and continuous learning within the organisation. | 4.11 | 0.73 |
| H5 Alleviating concerns about job security and job satisfaction related to adopting new technologies. | 3.87 | 0.63 |
| H6 Having low trust towards new technologies like blockchain. | 3.62 | 0.83 |
| H7 Facing a scarcity of blockchain consultants or experts who meet the specific requirements of the industry. | 4.00 | 0.68 |
| Composite score of human subscale | 3.93 | 0.37 |
| Subscale 4: Technical | ||
| T1 Simplifying the complexity of integrating BCT with existing construction management systems. | 3.93 | 0.66 |
| T2 Enhancing interoperability between different blockchain platforms and construction software. | 3.86 | 0.74 |
| T3 Addressing scalability challenges in implementing blockchain solutions for large-scale construction projects. | 3.99 | 0.73 |
| T4 Ensuring data privacy and security on blockchain platforms. | 3.77 | 0.80 |
| T5 Overcoming the limited availability of technical expertise and resources for developing and deploying blockchain applications. | 4.15 | 0.65 |
| T6 Having insufficient connectivity and bandwidth. | 3.48 | 0.73 |
| T7 A shortage of construction-related software applications utilising BCT. | 3.86 | 0.74 |
| Composite score of technical subscale | 3.86 | 0.34 |
| Subscale 5: Legal | ||
| L1 Navigating uncertainty about regulatory frameworks and compliance requirements for BCT. | 3.85 | 0.67 |
| L2 Addressing the legal implications of smart contracts and automated payment systems in construction projects. | 3.79 | 0.70 |
| L3 Mitigating concerns about liability and accountability in case of disputes or errors in blockchain transactions. | 3.73 | 0.72 |
| L4 Absence of established legal protocols to deter misconduct. | 3.63 | 0.80 |
| L5 Obtaining legal recognition and enforceability of blockchain-based contracts. | 3.77 | 0.76 |
| L6 Absence of comprehensive government policies. | 3.68 | 0.77 |
| Composite score of legal subscale | 3.74 | 0.44 |
Knowledge and awareness of the BCT in the construction industry
| No. | Items | Mean | SD |
|---|---|---|---|
| K1 | I am familiar with the basic concepts of BCT. | 3.33 | 0.70 |
| K2 | I understand how BCT can be applied to improve transparency in construction projects. | 3.44 | 0.81 |
| K3 | I am aware of specific use cases where blockchain has been successfully implemented in the construction industry. | 3.21 | 0.96 |
| K4 | I feel confident in explaining the benefits of BCT to my colleagues in the construction sector. | 3.17 | 0.94 |
| K5 | I have received formal training or education on BCT in the context of construction projects. | 2.63 | 1.21 |
| K6 | I actively seek information and updates on advancements in BCT relevant to the construction industry. | 3.35 | 0.78 |
| K7 | I am aware of potential barriers associated with implementing blockchain in the construction sector. | 3.35 | 0.91 |
| K8 | I believe that increased knowledge of BCT could positively impact the efficiency of construction project management. | 3.67 | 0.83 |
| K9 | I regularly engage in discussions or forums related to BCT within the construction industry. | 2.96 | 1.09 |
| K10 | I perceive a growing interest and awareness of BCT among my peers in the construction sector. | 3.48 | 0.80 |
| Overall construct | 3.26 | 0.67 |
Means and standard deviations of key drivers of BCT applications within the construction industry
| Mean | SD | |
|---|---|---|
| Subscale 1: Transparency and traceability | ||
| TT1 Implementing BCT will enhance transparency in project management practices in the construction industry. | 3.96 | 0.55 |
| TT2 BCT will improve the visibility of project documentation across stakeholders in the construction industry. | 3.96 | 0.66 |
| TT3 I believe that BCT will increase transparency in the construction industry. | 3.73 | 0.68 |
| TT4 BCT will enable better tracking of construction materials and components throughout the supply chain. | 3.92 | 0.63 |
| TT5 BCT is expected to enhance the traceability of materials from sourcing to installation in the construction industry. | 3.79 | 0.70 |
| TT6 Implementing BCT will improve the ability to trace the origin and history of construction materials. | 3.72 | 0.72 |
| Composite score of transparency and traceability subscale | 3.85 | 0.34 |
| Subscale 2: Data security | ||
| DS1 BCT offers a more secure way to store and share construction-related data. | 3.80 | 0.62 |
| DS2 BCT will provide better protection against data breaches in construction projects. | 3.76 | 0.73 |
| DS3 BCT will enhance the security of sensitive construction data. | 4.01 | 0.78 |
| Composite score of data security subscale | 3.75 | 0.44 |
| Subscale 3: Smart contracts | ||
| SC1 The adoption of smart contracts using BCT will streamline contract management processes in construction projects. | 4.01 | 0.78 |
| SC2 Smart contracts will improve the efficiency and reliability of contractual agreements in construction. | 3.70 | 0.76 |
| SC3 Smart contracts enabled by BCT will facilitate automated execution of project milestones and payments in the construction industry. | 4.25 | 0.69 |
| Composite score of smart contracts subscale | 3.99 | 0.54 |
| Subscale 4: Decentralisation | ||
| DC1 Decentralising project management through BCT will lead to more efficient decision-making processes in the construction industry. | 3.75 | 0.75 |
| DC2 Decentralisation using BCT will empower stakeholders to have greater control over project outcomes in the construction industry. | 3.73 | 0.70 |
| DC3 Implementing BCT will decentralise authority and promote collaboration among project stakeholders in the construction industry. | 3.73 | 0.76 |
| Composite score of decentralisation subscale | 3.74 | 0.53 |
| Subscale 5: Interoperability | ||
| IO1 It is important for blockchain platforms used in construction to be interoperable with existing software systems in the construction industry. | 3.63 | 0.74 |
| IO2 BCT has the ability to integrate seamlessly with other construction management tools. | 3.45 | 0.86 |
| IO3 Interoperability between blockchain platforms and construction software is crucial for achieving project goals. | 3.82 | 0.70 |
| Composite score of interoperability subscale | 3.63 | 0.50 |
| Subscale 6: Cost savings | ||
| CS1 Implementing BCT will result in cost savings by reducing administrative overhead in the construction industry. | 3.75 | 0.71 |
| CS2 BCT is expected to reduce transaction costs associated with construction projects in the construction industry. | 3.68 | 0.77 |
| CS3 BCT will lead to overall cost savings in construction projects in the construction industry. | 3.73 | 0.72 |
| Composite score of cost savings subscale | 3.72 | 0.51 |
| Subscale 7: Stakeholder engagement | ||
| SE1 Stakeholders in the construction industry are likely to embrace the use of BCT. | 3.76 | 0.71 |
| SE2 Contractors, suppliers and clients will see the benefits of adopting BCT. | 3.73 | 0.63 |
| SE3 Stakeholders strongly support implementing BCT in construction projects. | 3.73 | 0.58 |
| Composite score of stakeholder engagement subscale | 3.74 | 0.38 |
| Subscale 8: Regulatory compliance | ||
| RC1 BCT will facilitate compliance with regulatory requirements and standards in the construction industry. | 3.93 | 0.70 |
| RC2 BCT will simplify regulatory reporting and documentation processes in the construction industry. | 3.68 | 0.69 |
| RC3 Implementing BCT will ensure adherence to construction industry regulations and standards. | 3.73 | 0.63 |
| Composite score of regulatory compliance subscale | 3.78 | 0.43 |
| Subscale 9: Innovation potential | ||
| IP1 BCT has the potential to drive innovation and transformation in the construction industry. | 3.77 | 0.61 |
| IP2 BCT will enable new ways of approaching construction project management. | 3.75 | 0.50 |
| IP3 There are significant opportunities for innovation in the construction industry through the adoption of BCT. | 3.96 | 0.57 |
| Composite score of innovation potential subscale | 3.83 | 0.34 |
CFA results for validity and reliability assessment of the barriers construct
| Barriers in adopting BCT in the construction industry | Factor loading | AVE | Cronbach’s alpha | CR |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subscale 1: Organisational | ||||
| O1 Overcoming the lack of top management support for adopting blockchain technology in construction projects. | 0.726 | 0.563 | 0.901 | 0.899 |
| O2 Addressing resistance to change from traditional project management methods within the construction organisation. | 0.593 | |||
| O3 Securing adequate budget allocation for investing in blockchain initiatives in the construction industry. | 0.718 | |||
| O4 Shifting organisational culture to prioritise innovation and technological advancements, including blockchain in the construction industry. | 0.814 | |||
| O5 There is a limited internal expertise and resources for implementing and managing blockchain solutions in construction projects. | 0.775 | |||
| O6 The reluctance of companies to invest in new technologies. | 0.762 | |||
| O7 Collaboration and communication with stakeholders from construction and other various industries. | 0.836 | |||
| Subscale 2: Industrial | ||||
| I1 Competing effectively with other construction firms that have not yet adopted blockchain. technology. | 0.776 | 0.601 | 0.884 | 0.882 |
| I2 Maintaining competitive advantage if blockchain adoption is delayed. | 0.823 | |||
| I3 Encouragement of clients or project owners to embrace blockchain solutions in construction projects. | 0.844 | |||
| I4 Establishing industry standards or guidelines for implementing blockchain technology. | 0.684 | |||
| I5 Mitigating perceived risks associated with being an early adopter of blockchain in the construction sector. | 0.739 | |||
| Subscale 3: Human | ||||
| H1 Addressing resistance from employees due to fear of job displacement or changes in job roles. | 0.642 | 0.574 | 0.905 | 0.904 |
| H2 Bridging the skills gap among existing workforce regarding blockchain technology. | 0.736 | |||
| H3 Improving awareness and understanding of blockchain concepts and applications among employees. | 0.779 | |||
| H4 Fostering a culture of innovation and continuous learning within the organisation. | 0.782 | |||
| H5 Alleviating concerns about job security and job satisfaction related to adopting new technologies. | 0.810 | |||
| H6 Having low trust towards new technologies like blockchain. | 0.825 | |||
| H7 Facing a scarcity of blockchain consultants or experts who meet the specific requirements of the industry. | 0.714 | |||
| Subscale 4: Technical | ||||
| T1 Simplifying the complexity of integrating blockchain technology with existing construction management systems. | 0.689 | 0.586 | 0.908 | 0.908 |
| T2 Enhancing interoperability between different blockchain platforms and construction software. | 0.748 | |||
| T3 Addressing scalability challenges in implementing blockchain solutions for large-scale construction projects. | 0.816 | |||
| T4 Ensuring data privacy and security on blockchain platforms. | 0.779 | |||
| T5 Overcoming the limited availability of technical expertise and resources for developing and deploying blockchain applications. | 0.827 | |||
| T6 Having insufficient connectivity and bandwidth. | 0.758 | |||
| T7 A shortage of construction-related software applications utilising blockchain technology. | 0.733 | |||
| Subscale 5: Legal | ||||
| L1 Navigating uncertainty about regulatory frameworks and compliance requirements for blockchain technology. | 0.725 | 0.595 | 0.899 | 0.898 |
| L2 Addressing the legal implications of smart contracts and automated payment systems in construction projects. | 0.764 | |||
| L3 Mitigating concerns about liability and accountability in case of disputes or errors in blockchain transactions. | 0.772 | |||
| L4 Absence of established legal protocols to deter misconduct. | 0.806 | |||
| L5 Obtaining legal recognition and enforceability of blockchain-based contracts. | 0.776 | |||
| L6 Absence of comprehensive government policies. | 0.782 | |||
Validations of the proposed framework by the two experts
| Section | Question | Rating (1–5) | Average rating | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| E.1 | E.2 | ||||
| Knowledge and awareness gap | 1. Develop specialised training programmes or workshops to educate industry professionals about BCT fundamentals. | 5 | 5 | 5 | Add strategy |
| Human-related barriers | 1. Foster a culture of innovation by rewarding and recognising employees for suggesting new ideas and embracing change. | 5 | 4 | 4.5 | Add strategy |
| 2. Offer transparent communication about the organisation’s strategic direction and how technology adoption will impact roles. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | ||
| 3. Provide education and transparency about how BCT works, its benefits, credibility and limitations. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| Industrial-related barriers | 1. Collaborate with industry stakeholders to develop standardised frameworks for implementing BCT in construction projects. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | Improve sentence structure and grammar |
| 2. Provide detailed risk assessments and risk management strategies to address concerns about being an early adopter of BCT. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| 3. Differentiate the organisation by leveraging the advantages of BCT. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | ||
| Technical-related barriers | 1. Hire experts in BCT within the construction company. | 5 | 5 | 5 | Improve sentence structure and grammar |
| 2. Collaborate with blockchain developers to address scalability barriers specific to the construction industry. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | ||
| 3. Implement robust data encryption and access control mechanisms to protect sensitive information. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| 4. Minimise data transfer requirements to improve bandwidth and connectivity environments. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | ||
| Organisational-related barriers | 1. Launch internal awareness campaigns to educate employees about the benefits of BCT in construction projects. | 5 | 4 | 4.5 | |
| 2. Engage top management in discussions and workshops to address concerns and secure their buy-in for BCT initiatives. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| 3. Establish cross-functional teams to facilitate collaboration with stakeholders from the construction industry. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| 4. Develop a clear cost-benefit analysis highlighting the long-term value of adopting BCT in construction projects. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| Legal-related barriers | 1. Work with legal experts to develop clear protocols for handling disputes, errors, or misconduct in BCT-enabled projects. | 4 | 5 | 4.5 | Add strategy |
| 2. Ensure legal protocols are integrated into contract terms and project governance frameworks. | 5 | 5 | 5 | ||
| BCT applicable areas and outcomes | 1. Smart contracts | 5 | 5 | 5 | Add elaborations on benefits for applicable areas: streamline contract management processes. |
| 2. Transparency and traceability | 5 | 5 | 5 | Enhance transparency and improve traceability. | |
| 3. Innovation potential | 5 | 5 | 5 | Promote collaboration and improve process performance. | |
| 4. Regulatory compliance | 5 | 5 | 5 | Auditability and error mitigation. | |
| 5. Data security | 5 | 5 | 5 | Enhance the security of sensitive construction data. | |
| 6. Decentralisation | 5 | 5 | 5 | Improve time management and promote stakeholder engagement. | |
| 7. Cost-saving | 5 | 5 | 5 | Reducing cost and improving efficiency. | |
| 8. Interoperability | 5 | 5 | 5 | Facilitate transactions and improve system integration. | |
| Overall agreement | 1. Overall agreement with the proposed framework for implementing BCT in the Saudi Arabian construction sector. | 5 | 5 | 5 | Acceptable |
| Additional feedback | 1. Additional suggestions or comments to improve the proposed framework. | Improve language and sentence structure; address comments provided above. | |||
Summary of barriers in adopting BCT within the construction industry
| Category | Barriers | Description | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human | Impact of the skills gap among existing workforce regarding BCT | There is a gap in BCT-related skills among workers in the construction industry | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Weerakoon and Chandanie (2021) |
| Impact of limited awareness and understanding of blockchain concepts and applications among employees | Lack of awareness and understanding of BCT and its application among the construction workforce | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Li et al. (2019) | |
| Impact of the absence of a culture of innovation and continuous learning within the organisation on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Limited culture of innovation and continuous learning within the organisation | Anuradha et al. (2023), Li et al. (2019) and Waqar et al. (2024) | |
| Impact of low trust towards new technologies like BCT within the construction industry | Having low trust towards new technologies like BCT | Anuradha et al. (2023), Waqar et al. (2024) and Weerakoon and Chandanie (2021) | |
| Impact of the limited blockchain consultants or experts who meet the specific requirements of the industry on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Facing a scarcity of blockchain consultants or experts who meet the specific requirements of the industry | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Kim et al. (2020) | |
| Industrial | Impact of lower incentives among clients or project owners to embrace BCT solutions in construction projects | Lack of encouragement of clients or project owners to embrace BCT solutions in construction projects | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Li et al. (2019) |
| Impact of establishing industry standards or guidelines for implementing BCT | Lack of industry standards or guidelines for adopting BCT in construction projects | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Li et al. (2019) | |
| Legal | Impact of the presence of concerns about liability and accountability in case of disputes or errors in blockchain transactions on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Concerns about liability and accountability in case of disputes or errors in BCT transactions | Li et al. (2019), Ma (2021), Waqar et al. (2024) and Wu et al. (2022) |
| Impact of the absence of established legal protocols to deter misconduct in adopting BCT in the construction industry | Absence of established legal protocols to deter misconduct | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Waqar et al. (2024) | |
| Impact of obstacles regarding obtaining legal recognition and enforceability of blockchain-based contracts on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Obstacles in obtaining legal recognition and enforceability of blockchain-based contracts | Anuradha et al. (2023), Ma (2021), Waqar et al. (2024) and Weerakoon and Chandanie (2021) | |
| Impact of the absence of comprehensive government policies on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Absence of comprehensive government policies | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Weerakoon and Chandanie (2021) | |
| Technical | Impact of limited interoperability between different blockchain platforms and construction software on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Limited interoperability between different blockchain platforms and construction software | Anuradha et al. (2023), Singh et al. (2023) and Okanlawon et al. (2024) |
| Impact of limited data privacy and security in blockchain platforms on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Limited data privacy and security in construction projects | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Singh et al. (2023) | |
| Impact of the limited availability of technical expertise and resources for developing and deploying BCT applications within the construction industry | Limited availability of technical expertise and resources for developing and deploying BCT applications | Singh et al. (2023) and Waqar et al. (2024) | |
| The impact of insufficient connectivity and bandwidth on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Having insufficient connectivity and bandwidth | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Waqar et al. (2024) | |
| Impact of shortage of construction-related software applications utilising BCT | A shortage of construction-related software applications utilising BCT | Waqar et al. (2024) and Okanlawon et al. (2024) | |
| Organisational | Impact of the lack of top management support for adopting BCT in construction projects | The limited understanding of senior leadership for integrating BCT into construction projects | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Mohammed et al. (2021) |
| Impact of the limited internal expertise and resources on BCT adoption in construction projects | The internal capabilities of the organisation to handle BCT implementation | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Waqar et al. (2024) | |
| Impact of the reluctance of companies to invest in new technologies on BCT adoption in the construction industry | The general resistance some companies exhibit towards adopting new technologies, including BCT | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Singh et al. (2023) | |
| Impact of weak collaboration and communication with construction stakeholders and other industries on adopting BCT in the construction industry | Limited collaboration and communication with stakeholders from construction and other industries | Anuradha et al. (2023) and Mohammed et al. (2021) |