Degradation of hydroxychloroquine in aqueous solutions under electron beam treatment

Kabasa, Stephen; Sun, Yongxia; Bułka, Sylwester; Chmielewski, Andrzej G.

doi:10.2478/nuka-2024-0009

Figures & Tables

Dégradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine under electron beam treatment. (a) UV-VIS absorption spectrum of HCQ solution with an initial concentration of 2.88 × 10—4 M was observed at 343 nm at doses ranging from 0 kGy to 7 kGy. (b) The removal efficiency of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ solution under EB irradiation.

Degradation of different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine solutions under EB irradiation. (a) Variation in the removal efficiency with increasing HCQ concentration. (b) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing concentrations of HCQ. (c) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing doses for different concentrations of HCQ.

The effect of pH on the removal of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine. (a) Removal efficiency under different initial pH under electron beam treatment. (b) The changes in pH during electron beam irradiation with different initial pH.

Changes in pH concentration during electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ. The pH varied from slightly acidic before irradiation to acidic at the end of irradiation.

Release of the Cl- ion during the degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M solution of HCQ under electron beam treatment.

(a) Nitrification of organic bound nitrogen (HCQ[N]) with subsequent formation of NO3− during the electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M of HCQ. (b) Formation of NH4+ ion. HCQ, hydroxychloroquine; TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen; TN, total nitrogen.

Changes in the dissolved oxygen concentration during electron beam irradiation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ.

Variation in COD and TOC during electron beam degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ aqueous solutions.

Methods for the removal of hydroxyquinine from aqueous solutions

Method	Conditions	Efficiency	Ref.
Photochemical decomposition	pH 3–10	Half-lives of 5.5 min (pH3) to 23.1 h (pH4) Hydrolytic degradation <5%	[7, 8]
Adsorbents
Living microalgae	HCQ 20 mg·L^-1, pH 9.9, 45 min, 300 rpm stirring speed microalgae loading of 100 mg·L^-1	92.10 ± 1.25% maximum biosorption capacity is 339.02 mg·g^-1	[18]
H₃PO₄-activated Cystoseira barbata (Stackhouse) C. Agardh biochar	Adsorbent dose (0.025–1 g·L^-1), pH (4–11) contact time (0–240 min) HCQ (10–50 mg·L^-1)	98.9% (q_max = 353.58 mg·g^-1) surface area (1088.806 m²·g^-1)	[19]
Natural zeolite CP	pH 2–7.5 298 K, 303 K, and 308 K	7 mg·g^-1 7 cycles reuse	[20]
Algerian kaolin	0.05–0.15 g·L^-1 sorbent, and pH of 3–7 5–50 mg·L^-1 HCQ	Capacity of 51 mg·g^-1 0.15 g·L^-1 of kaolin, 5 mg·L^-1 as HCQ initial concentration, and pH 7 are optimal	[21]
Catalysis
ZnO-CP catalyst	2 g·L^-1 15% ZnO-CP pH = 7.5 UV-A radiation, 10 mg·L^-1 HCQ, 180 min	96%	[17]
Modified titanium oxide using beta-bismuth oxide TiO₂/ß-Bi₂O₃	120 min, pH 3–11 10 mg·L^-1 HCQ, 0.1 g·L^-1 catalyst, 0.1 mg·L^-1 H₂O₂	91.8% 6 cycles >70% degradation	[12]
MoS₂/CNTs nanocomposite	MoS₂/CNTs 10:1 ratio loading of 0.1 g·L^-1 pH of 8.7, HCQ-20 mg·L^-1 120 min	70% Lower band gap energy (1.2 eV), higher specific surface area (30.6 m²·g^-1)	[13]
Ti3GeC2 with peroxydisulfate	20 mg·L^-1 HCQ 0.2 g·L^-1 Ti3GeC2, 0.15 mmol·L^-1 PDS, ultrasound irradiation 80 min	60.42% Dependent on catalyst dosage (0.1–0.2 g·L^-1)	[16]
Advanced oxidation processess
Electrochemical oxidation	BDD anodes, HCQ 36–250 mg·L^-1, j = 20 mA·cm^-2, pH = 7.1, T = 25°C, 0.05 M Na₂SO₄	100%	[14]
Electrochemical oxidation	BDD electrode 15 mA·cm^-2, 30 mA·cm^-2, and 45 mA·cm^-2	100% COD (68%, 71%, and 84%)	[15]
Fe(0)/HSO5−/UV system	HSO5− dose: 194.31 mg·L^-1; Fe(0): 198.83 mg·L^-1; pH = 2.02 and HCQ 296.41 mg·L^-1 60 min	98.95%	[21]
Gamma irradiation	100 ppm HCQ A dose rate of 26.31 Gy·min^-1 pH = 6.2	98.5% TOC removal (8 kGy) complete mineralization	[22]
Gamma irradiation	20 ppm HCQ, 1 kGy dose 4.2 kGy¹	100%	[23]

Reaction rates of aminoquinoline derivatives with hydroxyl radical and hydrated electrons

Reactive spp	Hydroxychloroquine [30]	Chloroquine [31]	Amodiaquine [32]
^•OH	9.5 × 10⁹ M^-1·s^-1	7.3 × 10⁹ M^-1·s^-1	9.0 × 10⁹ M^-1·s^-1
eaq−	2.0 × 10⁹ M^-1·s^-1	4.8 × 10¹⁰ M^-1·s^-1	1.6 × 10¹⁰ M^-1·s^-1

Rate constant k for different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine and corresponding R2 values

Concentation (mg·L^-1)	k (kGy^-1)	R²
75	1.1287	0.9974
100	1.0706	0.9887
125	0.8980	0.9443

Degradation of hydroxychloroquine in aqueous solutions under electron beam treatment

Figures & Tables

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Methods for the removal of hydroxyquinine from aqueous solutions

Reaction rates of aminoquinoline derivatives with hydroxyl radical and hydrated electrons

Rate constant k for different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine and corresponding R2 values

Paradigm

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