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Assessing airborne bacteria abundance in sea foam aerosol Cover
Open Access
|Nov 2025

Figures & Tables

Figure 1.

Six study sites utilized in the preliminary study (2021–2022) that identified bacteria-containing sea foams in the Toms River, NJ (northern Barnegat Bay, Table 1). Mapping was performed using the ArcGIS software.
Six study sites utilized in the preliminary study (2021–2022) that identified bacteria-containing sea foams in the Toms River, NJ (northern Barnegat Bay, Table 1). Mapping was performed using the ArcGIS software.

Figure 2.

(a-b). (a) The five sites utilized for collection that ranged from Lavallette to Seaside Park, New Jersey (Table 2). Mapping was performed using the ArcGIS software. (b) Photographs of the five collection sites and examples of foams collected there.
(a-b). (a) The five sites utilized for collection that ranged from Lavallette to Seaside Park, New Jersey (Table 2). Mapping was performed using the ArcGIS software. (b) Photographs of the five collection sites and examples of foams collected there.

Figure 3.

(a-e). (a) Illustrated methodological process. (b) Coastal air sample passive culturing of coastal air samples. (c,d) Foam aerosol collection method. (e) Examples of Coliforms grown on foam (top left), foam aerosol (top right), water (bottom left), and coastal air (bottom right) plates.
(a-e). (a) Illustrated methodological process. (b) Coastal air sample passive culturing of coastal air samples. (c,d) Foam aerosol collection method. (e) Examples of Coliforms grown on foam (top left), foam aerosol (top right), water (bottom left), and coastal air (bottom right) plates.

Figure 4.

(a,b). (a) Geomean bacterial levels found in all sample types collected from 19 November 2022 to 11 December 2022; foams (X) contained significantly higher amounts of bacteria compared to their aerosol, water, and coastal atmospheric counterparts (P < 0.001, Water: 14.3 ± 16.9; Coastal Air: 5.8 ± 6.3; Foam: 177.7 ± 151.7; Foam Aerosol: 8.4 ± 2.8, ± 0.05, n = 75). (b) Barnegat Bay sites had significantly higher bacterial concentrations in foam aerosols than in their surrounding coastal atmospheres (P = 0.0152, Coastal Air: 3.5 ± 6.8; Foam Aerosol: 15.4 ± 10.8), while Atlantic Ocean sites had higher coastal air Coliform counts than in their respective foam aerosols (P = 0.1915, Coastal Air: 12.2 ± 17.0; Foam Aerosol: 5.8 ± 3.2, ± 0.05, n = 60).
(a,b). (a) Geomean bacterial levels found in all sample types collected from 19 November 2022 to 11 December 2022; foams (X) contained significantly higher amounts of bacteria compared to their aerosol, water, and coastal atmospheric counterparts (P < 0.001, Water: 14.3 ± 16.9; Coastal Air: 5.8 ± 6.3; Foam: 177.7 ± 151.7; Foam Aerosol: 8.4 ± 2.8, ± 0.05, n = 75). (b) Barnegat Bay sites had significantly higher bacterial concentrations in foam aerosols than in their surrounding coastal atmospheres (P = 0.0152, Coastal Air: 3.5 ± 6.8; Foam Aerosol: 15.4 ± 10.8), while Atlantic Ocean sites had higher coastal air Coliform counts than in their respective foam aerosols (P = 0.1915, Coastal Air: 12.2 ± 17.0; Foam Aerosol: 5.8 ± 3.2, ± 0.05, n = 60).

Figure 5.

A significant relationship between bacterial contents (# of Coliforms) in foams and their resulting aerosols; as bacteria levels in the foams increased, bacteria levels in their resulting aerosols also increased (R2 = 0.5996, P = 0.0012, n = 25).
A significant relationship between bacterial contents (# of Coliforms) in foams and their resulting aerosols; as bacteria levels in the foams increased, bacteria levels in their resulting aerosols also increased (R2 = 0.5996, P = 0.0012, n = 25).

Figure 6.

An analysis of the potential identifications of respiratory harming, pathogenic Staphylococci and Streptococci genera. Respiratory harming bacteria represented themselves in mostly foam samples (86% of all Staphylococci and Streptococci bacteria were found in foams). The remaining 9% occurrence of pathogenic bacteria that were found in aerosols suggest that foams can successfully pass these genera to airborne conditions.
An analysis of the potential identifications of respiratory harming, pathogenic Staphylococci and Streptococci genera. Respiratory harming bacteria represented themselves in mostly foam samples (86% of all Staphylococci and Streptococci bacteria were found in foams). The remaining 9% occurrence of pathogenic bacteria that were found in aerosols suggest that foams can successfully pass these genera to airborne conditions.

Figure 7.

Quantified colony shapes (circular, irregular, and punctiform) found in all four sample types. Foam samples can be observed to have the most variety of colony morphology, containing all three of the most prevalent bacteria shapes found. Circular colonies were the most common colony shape found across all four sample types (± 0.05, n = 75).
Quantified colony shapes (circular, irregular, and punctiform) found in all four sample types. Foam samples can be observed to have the most variety of colony morphology, containing all three of the most prevalent bacteria shapes found. Circular colonies were the most common colony shape found across all four sample types (± 0.05, n = 75).

Locations sampled and field conditions recorded at each site during sampling_

Site #12345
Site NameHancock Ave, Seaside Heights13th Ave Pier Seaside ParkCentennial Park, LavaletteF Street Seaside ParkBrown Ave, Lavalette
Site Location TypeBarnegat BayBarnegat BayBarnegat BayAtlantic OceanAtlantic Ocean
Latitude40.025188 N39.9267851 N39.969393 N39.92726 N39.979813 N
Longitude−74.0541903 W−74.1337496 W−74.073158 W−74.07693 W−74.064137 W
Salinity (ppt)20.019.818.827.828.9
Water Temp (°C)7.56.47.68.87.8
Air Temp (°C)5.013.312.88.38.3
Wind Speed (mph)1714141515
Wind DirectionWSWWWENEENE
TideLowHighHighHighHigh
Pressure (psi)30.2030.0530.0330.2130.18
PrecipitationNone reportedPrevious dayPrevious dayPrevious night/later that dayPrevious night/later that day
Time for Foams to Vaporize (min)4543504142

Geomean Escherichia coli (E_ coli) coliforms found at each Toms River, New Jersey, USA sampling site in the preliminary study (2021–2022)_

Site NameIsland HeightsMoney IslandBrown Rec AreaIsland BeachStation Ave EastPine Beach
Site #123456
Geomean E. coli Coliforms1253.0<0.1365.0143.115.8<0.1
Language: English
Page range: 13 - 21
Published on: Nov 25, 2025
Published by: New Jersey Academy of Science
In partnership with: Paradigm Publishing Services
Publication frequency: 4 issues per year

© 2025 Maya T. Abdelaal, Jason Kelsey, John Wnek, published by New Jersey Academy of Science
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.