Improving Ballistic Resistance of Armor Steel by FCAW with Hardfacing Alloys of Fe–Mo–Mn–B–C System

Pavlo Prysyazhnyuk; Witold Biały; Michał Bembenek; Vitalii Panchuk; Iuliia Medvid; Zoia Duriagina; Taras Romanyshyn; Vasyl Vytvytskyi

doi:10.2478/mspe-2025-0036

Abstract

Armor steels can be strengthened against modern ballistic threats through surface hardfacing with advanced Fe-based alloys. This study develops a series of flux-cored arc welded (FCAW) hardfacing alloys in the Fe–Mo–Mn–B–C system to enhance the ballistic resistance of Armox® 440T steel. Single-layer (~3 mm) hardfacings were deposited on 6 mm armor plates using an automated hardfacing device, and subsequently characterized with respect to their microstructure, phase composition, and ballistic performance. Thermodynamic calculations and microscopy revealed an austenitic matrix reinforced by hard boride inclusions. By increasing the Mo and B concentrations, the alloy solidification shifted from a primary austenite + austenite boride mixture to a primary boride + austenite boride mixture structure. The compositions with high Mo:B ratio yielded a ~25% volume fraction of Mo2(Fe,Mn)B2 borides. Ballistic tests using 7.62 mm steel-core bullets (~830 m/s) showed that uncoated Armox 440T was completely perforated, whereas all hardfaced plates prevented penetration. Notably, coatings with higher boride content eliminated rear-side spalling, indicating superior energy absorption and projectile fragmentation. These findings demonstrate that FCAW-applied hypereutectic Fe–Mo–Mn–B–C hardfacing alloys can significantly improve the ballistic performance of armor plates.

References

A. Malik, F. Nazeer, and Y. Wang, “A prospective way to achieve ballistic impact resistance of lightweight magnesium alloys,” Metals (Basel), vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 1-3, 2022, doi: 10.3390/met12020241.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
E.Ch. Tsirogiannis, E. Daskalakis, M.H. Hassan, A.M. Omar, and P. Bartolo, “Ballistic design and testing of a composite armour reinforced by CNTs suitable for armoured vehicles,” Defence Technology, vol. 32, pp. 173-195, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.dt.2023.04.013.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Y. Wang et al., “Ballistic performance of functionally graded B4C/Al composites without abrupt interfaces: Experiments and simulations,” Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 25, pp. 1011-1029, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.06.021.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I. Shatskyi, M. Makoviichuk, L. Ropyak, and A. Velychkovych, “Analytical model of deformation of a functionally graded ceramic coating under local load,” Ceramics, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 1879-1893, 2023, doi: 10.3390/ceramics6030115.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
L. Ropyak, T. Shihab, A. Velychkovych, O. Dubei, T. Tutko, and V. Bilinskyi, “Design of a two-layer Al–Al2O3 coating with an oxide layer formed by the plasma electrolytic oxidation of Al for the corrosion and wear protections of steel,” Progress in Physics of Metals, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 319-365, 2023.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
L. Ropyak, T. Shihab, A. Velychkovych, O. Dubei, T. Tutko, and V. Bilinskyi, “Design of a two-layer Al–Al2O3 coating with an oxide layer formed by the plasma electrolytic oxidation of Al for the corrosion and wear protections of steel,” Progress in Physics of Metals, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 319-365, 2023.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
V. Lozynskyi et al., “Prediction of phase composition and mechanical properties Fe–Cr–C–B–Ti–Cu hardfacing alloys: Modeling and experimental validations,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 3, p. e25199, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25199.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
P. Prysyazhnyuk, M. Molenda, T. Romanyshyn, L. Ropyak, L. Romanyshyn, and V. Vytvytskyi, “Development of a hardbanding material for drill pipes based on high-manganese steel reinforced with complex carbides,” Acta Montanistica Slovaca, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 1-10, 2022.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
P. Prysyazhnyuk, O. Ivanov, O. Matvienkiv, S. Marynenko, O. Korol, and I. Koval, “Impact and abrasion wear resistance of the hardfacings based on high-manganese steel reinforced with multicomponent carbides of Ti–Nb–Mo–VC system,” Procedia Structural Integrity, vol. 36, pp. 130-136, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.prostr.2022.01.014.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
V. Kulyk et al., “The effect of sintering temperature on the phase composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties of yttria-stabilized zirconia,” Materials (Basel), vol. 15, no. 8, p. 2707, 2022, doi: 10.3390/ma15082707.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I. Solodkyi et al., “Hierarchical composites of B4C–TiB2 eutectic particles reinforced with Ti,” Ceramics International, vol. 46, no. 18, pp. 28132-28144, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.07.312.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M. Ayvaz and H. Cetinel, “Ballistic performance of powder metal Al5Cu–B4C composite as monolithic and laminated armor,” Materials Testing, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 512-518, 2021, doi: 10.1515/mt-2020-0084.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M. Sözeri, U. Özdemir, T. Fındık, and H. Karakoç, “Comparative study of hardfacing applications on structural steel surfaces to improve ballistic properties,” Materials Today Communications, vol. 38, p. 107733, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2023.107733.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
P. Kopas, M. Blatnicky, M. Sága and M.Vasko, “Identification of mechanical properties of weld joints of AlMgSi07.F25 aluminium alloy”. Metalurgija, Vol. 56, Issue 1-2, pp. 99-102. Published 2017.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
E. Altuncu and M. Tarım, “Laser cladding of martensitic stainless steels on armor steels,” Emerging Materials Research, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-4, 2020, doi: 10.1680/jemmr.18.00120.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I. Garašić, M. Jurica, A. Barišić, and D. Iljkić, “Determination of ballistic properties on ARMOX 500T steel welded joint,” Engineering Review, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 186-196, 2019, doi: 10.30765/er.39.2.8.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I.P. Shats’kyi, “Closure of a longitudinal crack in a shallow cylindrical shell in bending,” Materials Science, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 186-191, 2005, doi: 10.1007/s11003-005-0149-z.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I.P. Shats’kyi and M.V. Makoviichuk, “Contact interaction of crack lips in shallow shells in bending with tension,” Materials Science, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 486-494, 2005, doi: 10.1007/s11003-006-0006-8.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
K.M. Dovbnya and N.A. Shevtsova, “Studies on the stress state of an orthotropic shell of arbitrary curvature with the through crack under bending loading,” Strength of Materials, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 345-349, 2014, doi: 10.1007/s11223-014-9556-4.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I.P. Shats’kyi and M.V. Makoviichuk, “Analysis of the limiting state of cylindrical shells with cracks with regard for the contact of crack lips,” Strength of Materials, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 560-564, 2009, doi: 10.1007/s11223-009-9166-8.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I.P. Shatskii and N.V. Makoviichuk, “Effect of closure of collinear cracks on the stress–strain state and the limiting equilibrium of bent shallow shells,” Journal of Applied Mechanics and Technical Physics, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 464-470, 2011, doi: 10.1134/s0021894411030175.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M.V. Makovijchuk, T.M. Daliak, and I.P. Shatskij, “Interaction of contact crack with collinear slit under shallow spherical shell bending,” International Applied Mechanics, vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 171-178, 2024, doi: 10.1007/s10778-024-01271-z.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I.A. Shah et al., “Finite element analysis of the ballistic impact on auxetic sandwich composite human body armor,” Materials (Basel), vol. 15, no. 6, p. 2064, 2022, doi: 10.3390/ma15062064.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
I. Shatskyi and A. Velychkovych, “Analytical model of structural damping in friction module of shell shock absorber connected to spring,” Shock and Vibration, pp. 1-17, 2023, doi: 10.1155/2023/4140583.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
A. Velychkovych, V. Mykhailiuk, and A. Andrusyak, “Numerical model for studying the properties of a new friction damper developed based on the shell with a helical cut,” Applied Mechanics, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 1, 2025, doi: 10.3390/applmech6010001.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M. Handrik, P. Kopas, V. Baniari, M. Vasko and M. Saga, “Analysis of stress and strain of fatigue specimens localised in the cross-sectional area of the gauge section testing on bi-axial fatigue machine loaded in the high-cycle fatigue region,“ XXI Polish-Slovak scientific conference machine modeling and simulations MMS 2016, Vol. 177, pp. 516-519, DOI10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.254
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
E.R.S. Souza, R.P. Weber, S.N. Monteiro, and S. de S. Oliveira, “Microstructure effect of heat input on ballistic performance of welded high strength armor steel,” Materials (Basel), vol. 14, no. 19, p. 5789, 2021, doi: 10.3390/ma14195789.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
T. Özdemir, “Mechanical & microstructural analysis of armor steel welded joints,” Uluslararası Muhendislik Arastirma ve Gelistirme Dergisi, pp. 166-175, 2020, doi: 10.29137/umagd.488104.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
S.N. Kumar, V. Balasubramanian, S. Malarvizhi, A.H. Rahman, and V. Balaguru, “Effect of welding consumables on shielded metal arc welded ultra high hard armour steel joints,” Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 8-21, 2022, doi: 10.1515/jmbm-2022-0002.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
O. Ivanov, P. Prysyazhnyuk, D. Lutsak, O. Matviienkiv, and V. Aulin, “Improvement of abrasion resistance of production equipment wear parts by hardfacing with flux-cored wires containing boron carbide/metal powder reaction mixtures,” Management Systems in Production Engineering, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 178-183, 2020, doi: 10.2478/mspe-2020-0026.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M. Bembenek, P. Prysyazhnyuk, T. Shihab, R. Machnik, O. Ivanov, and L. Ropyak, “Microstructure and wear characterization of the Fe-Mo-B-C-based hardfacing alloys deposited by flux-cored arc welding,” Materials (Basel), vol. 15, no. 14, 2022, doi: 10.3390/ma15145074.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
M. Student, A. Vojtovych, H. Pokhmurska, O. Maruschak, O. Student, and P. Maruschak, “Mechanical characteristics and wear resistance of the cladding layers obtained by melting of cored wires with simultaneous vibration of substrate,” Strojnícky časopis – Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 109-122, 2019, doi: 10.2478/scjme-2019-0009.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
S.T.A. Shihab, P. Prysyazhnyuk, R. Andrusyshyn, L. Lutsak, O. Ivanov, and I. Tsap, “Forming the structure and the properties of electric arc coatings based on high manganese steel alloyed with titanium and niobium carbides,” Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, vol. 1, no. 12 (103), pp. 38-44, 2020, doi: 10.15587/1729-4061.2020.194164.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
D. Li et al., “Ballistic analysis of high-performance armor steel by numerical simulation,” Scientific Reports, vol. 14, no. 1, 2024, doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-62482-5.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
D. Ma, R. Scazzosi, and A. Manes, “Modeling approaches for ballistic simulations of composite materials: Analytical model vs. finite element method,” Composites Science and Technology, vol. 248, p. 110461, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2024.110461.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
Y. Striletskyi, L. Ropyak, and A. Bandura, “Method of oscillation excitation for investigation of inconsistency of coating deposition on long parts,” Vibroengineering Procedia, vol. 57, pp. 25-31, 2024, doi: 10.21595/vp.2024.24567.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
A. Bandura and O. Skaskiv, “Functions analytic in a unit ball of bounded L-index in joint variables,” Journal of Mathematical Sciences, vol. 227, no. 1, pp. 1-12, 2017, doi: 10.1007/s10958-017-3570-6.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
A. Bandura and O. Skaskiv, “Entire functions of bounded L-index: Its zeros and behavior of partial logarithmic derivatives,” Journal of Complex Analysis, pp. 1-10, 2017, doi: 10.1155/2017/3253095.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
P. Prysyazhnyuk and D. Di Tommaso, “The thermodynamic and mechanical properties of Earth-abundant metal ternary boride Mo2(Fe,Mn)B2 solid solutions for impact- and wear-resistant alloys,” Materials Advances, vol. 4, no. 17, pp. 3822-3838, 2023, doi: 10.1039/d3ma00313b.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
B. Hallstedt, A.V. Khvan, B.B. Lindahl, M. Selleby, and S. Liu, “PrecHiMn-4–a thermodynamic database for high-Mn steels,” Calphad, vol. 56, pp. 49–57, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.calphad.2016.11.006.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
V.A. Tatarenko and T.M. Radchenko, “The application of radiation diffuse scattering to the calculation of phase diagrams of F.C.C. substitutional alloys,” Intermetallics, vol. 11, no. 11-12, pp. 1319-1326, 2003, doi: 10.1016/s0966-9795(03)00174-2.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article
S.M. Bokoch and V.A. Tatarenko, “A semi-empirical parameterization of interatomic interactions based on the statistical-thermodynamic analysis of the data on radiation diffraction and phase equilibria in F.C.C.–Ni–Fe alloys,” Solid State Phenomena, vol. 138, pp. 303-318, 2008, doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.138.303.
Search in Google Scholar Back to article

Improving Ballistic Resistance of Armor Steel by FCAW with Hardfacing Alloys of Fe–Mo–Mn–B–C System

Abstract

Paradigm

My account